monk and abbot in the monastery of St. Stephen. Leo III. made him a cardinal-priest; and after the death of Stephen IV. he was elected pope, on 25th January, 817. He died on the 10th February, 824, after a seven years' pontificate. His relations to Lewis the Pious were somewhat precarious. He had neglected to obtain the imperial confirmation of his dignity, and was therefore obliged to send ambassadors to Aix-la-Chapelle with the message that the papal dignity was forced upon him against his will. In consequence of encroachments on the part of the pope, Lewis sent his son and co-regent Lothar to Italy, accompanied by Wala as counsellor. The young emperor was received with due honours in Rome, and crowned there. After organizing a Frankish party he crossed the Alps, leaving Wala as his representative. But he had not long departed when a deed of violence was committed in the papal palace. Two of the heads of the Frankish party were beheaded by the pope's orders, as it was believed. Lewis accordingly sent two legates to Rome to investigate the affair. Paschal, along with thirty-four bishops and live presbyters, had to take an oath before them that they were dear of the murder. He refused, however, to give up the murderers. The Romans were greatly offended with him for the act of humiliation to which he submitted, and would not allow him to be buried in St. Peter's. Paschal was a weak man, totally unfitted for the papal chair. Lewis himself was by no means energetic; but he was both disposed and able to maintain his supremacy over the city and see of St. Peter.—S. D.
PASCHAL II., or Rainerus, Pope, was born at Bieda in Tuscany. Gregory VII. made him cardinal-priest of St. Clement. On the 13th August, 1099, he was chosen pope and crowned the next day. His election took place against his will. He had even fled from the city to hide himself, but was recognized and brought back. He was first involved in a dispute with Philip of France, who had renewed his illicit connection with Bertrade, and had been excommunicated for it by the papal legate at the synod of Poitiers in 1100. Though compelled for a little to obey, the king soon ventured to live with her publicly, and the pope connived at the violation of the king's oath. In the contest between Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, on behalf of the pope, and Henry I. of England, respecting investiture and the oath of allegiance, he conceded the privilege to the king. Paschal renewed the ban of excommunication against Henry IV. of Germany, who had urged on the election of a counter-pope. He even instigated Henry's second son to rebel against his father, who was taken prisoner, compelled to renounce his throne, and afterwards died friendless and forsaken. But this very son, as Henry V., soon made the pope feel his power, for he revived the controversy respecting the right of investiture, sent a message to Paschal to come to Germany for the purpose of settling the relations between church and state at an ecclesiastical council; and on the latter's refusal, invested several bishops with the ring and crosier, and had them consecrated; and reinstated in his office, Udo of Hildesheim, contrary to the prohibition of the pope. In vain did Paschal remonstrate against these proceedings. Negotiations at the synod of Troyes (1107) were fruitless, and the emperor invading Italy with an army compelled the pope to submit. The latter offered to purchase the freedom of the church by sacrificing its secular power, and proposed to restore to the king the imperial fiefs belonging to the bishops, on condition that the episcopal elections might be exempt from royal interference. This contract was opposed by the cardinals and princes, who refused to take part in the emperor's coronation; and when the pope endeavoured to evade the act of crowning the emperor, the latter carried away captive the vicar of Christ and most of the cardinals. Two months afterwards the pope gave up the right of investiture to the emperor, promised not to excommunicate the king, and to crown him in the usual way; on which he and his fellow-captives were liberated. On the 13th April, 1111, Henry was crowned accordingly at Rome. In 1112, at a Lateran synod, the compact was declared void; and papal legates pronounced the sentence of excommunication against Henry, since Paschal refused to do it. In 1116 the emperor took possession of the property left by Mathilda of Tuscany, and marched thence to Rome, where he had an influential party, the pope fleeing to Beneventum. In the city he could not persuade any of the cardinals to put the crown upon his head, till a Portuguese bishop whom Paschal had left in Rome performed the ceremony. After Henry had left, the pope returned and made warlike preparations for driving his opponents from the parts of the city which they occupied. He died, however, before he could effect his purpose, 21st January, 1118. The character of Paschal II. is easily drawn. His abilities were moderate, and unequal to the place he occupied. He wanted strength of mind, tact, talent, firmness, in order to carry out the principles of his predecessors. Yet his zeal for the hierarchy was great, and his spirit fiery. Hence he was always demanding and always yielding in his contests with the powers of Europe.—S. D.
PASCHAL III., anti-Pope, was chosen pope after Victor IV. by order of the Emperor Frederick I., in 1165. His name was Guido, and he had been cardinal of St. Calixtus. The princes of Germany acknowledged his authority in the diet of Wurtzburg. When Rome was taken by the emperor, Alexander III. was obliged to flee to Benevento and leave the chair of St. Peter in the hands of Paschal; but the latter died in 1168.—S. D.
PASCHASIUS, Radbertus (St.), born at Soissons about 786, joined the Benedictines at Corby, where he became abbot in 844. About 831, during the exile of Wala, his abbot, he wrote a treatise on the body and blood of the Lord. In this work he taught that the body of Christ is really in the eucharist such as it was born of the Virgin, crucified, raised, and taken to heaven. He was opposed by Ratramnus (or Bertram), John Scotus, &c. Paschasius in his defence said he had written only what the whole world had believed from the time of the apostles. He has the credit at least of defining the doctrine of transubstantiation. Eventually he had to resign his abbacy, and went to live in retirement. He attended a synod at Paris in 846, and one at Quièrcy in 848 against Gotteschalcus. He wrote some commentaries upon parts of scripture, lives of saints, &c., but has no great merit as an author. Father Ivimond published his works in 1618, and additions to them have been edited by Martene and D'Achery.—B. H. C.
PASKEVITCH, Ivan Fedorivitch, Prince of Warsaw and field-marshal of the Russian empire, was born in 1780 at Pultava of a family of Polish descent. He was educated at St. Petersburg, and entering the army early, was present at the battle of Austerlitz in 1805. The following year he was employed in the expedition against the Turks, and distinguished himself on several occasions in the course of that war, which lasted until 1812. In the celebrated campaigns against the French, 1812-13-14, he took an active part, and entered Paris with the allies. He was made general in 1815, but held no important command until after the accession of the Emperor Nicholas, who committed to him the conduct of the Persian war in 1826. He defeated Prince Abbas Mirza in the battle of Elizavethpol, crossed the river Araxes in spite of the opposition of the Persian army, raised the siege of Etschmiadin, carried Erivan by storm, entered Tauris, captured the fortress of Ardebil, and after celebrating his triumphs with great religions pomp at the foot of Mount Ararat, he dictated to the Persians the humiliating peace of Tourtmanschai. For his achievements in this war Paskevitch was made count, with the addition of Erivansky to his name. In 1828 he was as fortunate against the Turks as he had been against their neighbours, capturing Kars and six other fortresses. The following year he forced the entrenched camp at Erzeroom, containing fifty thousand Turks. He was created field-marshal and appointed to succeed the terrible Yermolof in the government of the conquered provinces of the Caucasus. In the Polish revolution of 1831 he was employed to subdue the insurrection, succeeding General Diebitsch. Having put down the revolution he was made viceroy of Poland, which he governed for sixteen years with military rigour, making Warsaw a citadel of defence against her own inhabitants. In 1849 he was again called to the command of an army, and in the name of the Emperor Nicholas rescued Hungary from the hands of the Hungarians to hand her over to the Austrians. The war with Turkey, France, and England, 1853-56, called him to the field for the last time. He entered Jassey, 14th April, 1854, and pushing forward to the mouths of the Danube laid siege to Silistria in 1854. The heroic resistance of the garrison was fatal to the veteran general; he received a contusion from which he never recovered, and worse still, was obliged to retreat with his army. He died at Warsaw, January 29, 1856.—R. H.
PASLEY, Sir C. W., K.C.B., General, a distinguished military engineer, was born in 1781, and educated for the artillery service, which he entered as second-lieutenant in 1797. He removed, however, to the royal engineers in the following year. He was at the siege of Gaeta in 1806, at the battle of
