mind to ascertain what became of souls which did not confess. He died at Castello di Fontignano in 1524; and as he had refused the sacrament or to confess, he was buried in unconsecrated ground, in a field by the side of the public road. Perugino is perhaps more distinguished for having been the master of Raphael than for the merit of his works, though even Raphael was not equal to his master in his own quaint style.—(Vasari, Vite, &c.; Mariotti, Lettere Pittoriche Perugini, 1788; Orsini, Vita, &c., dell' Egregio Pittore Pietro Perugino, 1804; Mezzanotte, Della Vita, &c., di Pietro Vannucci, 1836; and Vermiglioli, Di Bernardino Pinturicchio, &c., con illustrazioni della vita di Pietro Perugino, Perugia, 1837.)—R. N. W.
PERUZZI, Baldassare, one of the most celebrated of the Italian architects and painters, was born at Accajano, near Siena, in 1481, and was at first a painter, but through the influence of Agostino Ghigi at Rome during the pontificate of Julius II., turned his attention to architecture. He built for this patron, his fellow-countryman, the celebrated summer palace on the Tiber, afterwards known as the Farnesina; and he had so far advanced in reputation in 1520 that, upon the death of Raphael in that year, Peruzzi was appointed by Leo X. to succeed that great painter as architect of St. Peter's, at a salary of two hundred and fifty scudi per annum. Life went pleasantly with him until 1527, when Rome was sacked by the soldiers of the Constable Bourbon; Peruzzi was not only robbed of all he possessed, but was forced also to paint a picture of the dead constable who was killed in the assault, and if we are to credit Benvenuto Cellini, by him. After the completion of this picture Peruzzi escaped to Siena, where he was appointed city architect. He, however, returned to Rome after a few years, died there in 1536, and was buried by the side of Raphael in the Pantheon. Antonio da San Gallo succeeded him as architect of St. Peter's. As a painter Peruzzi did little; but the National gallery possesses a remarkable drawing made by him, in 1521, of the "Adoration of the Kings," in which the three kings are portraits of Michelangelo, Titian, and Raphael, and it is engraved nearly the same size by Agostino Carracci. The gallery also possesses a large oil picture from it, possibly by the hand of Girolamo da Treviso.—(Vasari, Vite, &c.; Delia Valle, Lettere Sanesi; Milizia, Memorie degli architetti, &c.; Gaye, Carteggio d'Artisti.)—R. N. W.
PESCARA. See Avalos.
PESCE (Fish), the appropriate surname bestowed on Nicola or Cola, a Sicilian who flourished in the fourteenth century, and developed remarkable powers of swimming and diving. Under the patronage of the Sicilian monarch he, in truth, performed memorable aquatic feats; but sundry stories told concerning him have been pronounced incredible. It is related that the king bribed him to dive into the whirlpool of Charybdis, by casting in a golden cup. Pesce emerged safely, and received a purse of gold in addition to the recovered goblet; but repeating the perilous plunge, he never returned. Schiller's spirited ballad of the Diver gives a poetical version of the incident.—C. G. R.
PESNE, Jean, a celebrated French engraver, was born at Rouen in 1623. He engraved several of his own designs; a series of fifteen landscapes after Guercino and other Italian masters; and several subject-pieces of Raphael, Annibal Caracci, and others: but he is chiefly celebrated for his prints after Nicolas Poussin, which are very numerous, and better represent the peculiar manner of that master, than the prints of any other engraver. Dumesnil gives a list of one hundred and sixty-six prints by Jean Pesne. He died at Paris in 1700.—J. T—e.
PESTALOZZI, John Henry, eminent as philanthropist, still more eminent as educational reformer, was born at Zürich, in Switzerland, on the 12th January, 1746. His name points to an Italian origin. He was the son of a physician, whose early death left Pestalozzi to the care of relations. From his childhood Pestalozzi displayed that pity for the poor, which through life was the leading impulse of all his exertions. After studying theology he studied law, but found in neither food or field for his sympathies. Withdrawing from men, he resolved to live with nature and according to nature. Purchasing a small estate he, at the age of twenty-three, married Anna Schulthess, a woman with a character as lofty, as loving, as self-sacrificing as his own. About five years before this, the Emile of Rousseau had been published. This book produced a great revolution in the modes of teaching—less by the positive principles which it set forth than by its assaults on what was false and artificial, what was mechanical and monotonous, in current practices. Emile revealed to Pestalozzi as idea what had long been stirring his heart as emotion, and it was under the influence of feeling, not of system, that his work as an educator began. Seeing that ignorance, misery, and vice are linked in eternal brotherhood, he strove to annihilate the vice and the misery by a warfare with the ignorance. He gathered round him a number of children belonging to the most wretched and helpless class, and by fatherly affection more than by regular instruction—by an appeal to the instincts more than by intense, incessant intellectual training—he strove to promote that sacred and beautiful harmony of the individual on which social harmony and happiness can alone be built. A blessing unspeakable to the indigent and their offspring by his zeal and charity, Pestalozzi forgot, in his anxiety for the unfortunate, to take care of his own affairs. His farming did not prosper. In the cultivation of souls, in fitting them for the service of the fatherland and of humanity, a more vulgar cultivation was neglected. Both kinds of cultivation had for a season to be abandoned. Pestalozzi had succoured the lowliest: he had now to share their lot. But adversity merely widened his experience; it did not slay his enthusiasm. His weary steps of pain brought him to the spectacle of woes which he would never otherwise have beheld—woes demanding grander ministries than he had hitherto employed. Hereby he was led to the publication of numerous books which—sometimes in the garb of fiction, sometimes in more sober attire—were all strikingly original, because inspired by love, and sorrow, and truth. In 1798 the Swiss government assisted Pestalozzi in founding at Stantz an educational institution for destitute children. But political troubles and private enmities, jealousies, and intrigues, speedily expelled the benevolent Pestalozzi. Departing, with calumny and persecution as his reward, he commenced a school on his own account at Burgdorf. The scope of the school enlarging, its fame extending, the school was transferred to the neighbourhood of Hofwyl, where Fellenberg was vigorously pursuing educational plans, for the most part Pestalozzian. Shortly afterwards Yverdun was chosen as the scene of Pestalozzi's exertions. In 1802 Pestalozzi was intrusted by the people with a political mission to the first consul at Paris. This mark of popular confidence and admiration, increased the dislike always felt toward Pestalozzi by the aristocratic party. The school at Yverdun, by its contagious force throughout Europe, was perhaps more deeply and lastingly useful than any school that ever existed. Many came to wonder; many to be educated; many to learn the art of education. But Pestalozzi's sway was one of inspiration: he had not the regal hand or the regal glance. Disorder, dissension reigned; the teachers quarreled with each other, quarreled with Pestalozzi: difficulties about money pressed severely—menaced gloomily. A collected edition of Pestalozzi's works in fifteen volumes yielded a very large sum, but did not meet the whole of the debts. In 1825 Pestalozzi—poor, reviled, slandered, and with the burden of eighty-one years—abandoned the Yverdun school to spend his last days in such peace as his troubles permitted. His "Swan's Song," a farewell to his labours, and an autobiographical work, both showed in 1826 that his pen had not lost its pith, his soul its ardour, his heart its compassion. Pestalozzi died at Brugg on the 17th September, 1827. The centenary of his birth was celebrated in Germany and Switzerland on the 12th January, 1846; and, what the excellent Pestalozzi would have approved far more than grateful and fervent words, various philanthropic institution' were, in memory of him, that day founded. So-called Pestalozzian schools have been established in England, and some of them still exist. But even a Pestalozzian school would need a Pestalozzi at its head, for it was through his individuality, and not through any pretentious schemes such as those of Jacotot and the like, that Pestalozzi was an incomparable educator. English educational reformers, instead of surrendering themselves to the slavery of a system, should study Pestalozzi's life and books, and let a noble, unselfish, spontaneous individuality acting on the individuality of others be the mighty instrument of redemption.—W. M.
PETAVIUS, Dionysius (Denys Petavu), one of the most learned men of the seventeenth century, was born at Orleans 21st August, 1583, and received his education in the universities of Orleans and Paris. In 1603, while yet only in his twentieth year, he was appointed to a philosophical chair in the university of Bourges, in which city he first entered into intercourse with the jesuits; which issued in his joining that order, and exchang-
