of Saxony, who, though the son-in-law of Philip and the cousin of John Frederick of Saxony, fell off from the league in the very crisis; of its fate. Philip and John Frederick were already in the field against Charles at the head of a united army, when Maurice invaded the territories of the latter, and obliged him to separate from the landgrave in order to repel the disgraceful invasion. This separation of their forces involved both princes in disaster. John Frederick was defeated and taken prisoner by the emperor in 1547 at Mühlberg, and Philip unable longer to keep the field, was compelled to make his submission upon terms sufficiently humbling. Withal, however, he expected to be left at liberty. But in this he was over-reached by the bad faith of Granvella, the emperors chief minister; he was kept Charles's prisoner for several years, was led about captive from place to place, even as far as the Netherlands; and it was not till the treaty of Passau was forced upon the emperor by the brilliant successes of Maurice in 1551, that as one of its conditions, he recovered his liberty, and returned to his states. His long captivity of five years, at first bitterly resented, was not in the end without some softening influence upon his naturally noble spirit and character. The remainder of his life was devoted to the welfare of his states, which had suffered much from his long absence and the miseries of war; and he continued to the end of his days, to display upon all occasions the same tolerant and liberal desire to accommodate theological differences among the different sections of the protestant church of Germany, which had been a guiding principle of his whole public life. He favoured the moderate views of Melancthon, rather than those of the extreme Lutherans; and he left instructions to his son in his last testament, that he should abstain from troubling any of his clergy who adhered to Melancthonian opinions. In one important particular he had the high honour of going beyond even the moderation of Melancthon, and of being far in advance of his own age—he disapproved of the execution of Servetus, holding strongly that religious errors ought to be combated not by brute force, but only by the arms of truth and reason. In one act alone of his life did he carry himself unworthily of an evangelical prince and a champion of reformation—we allude to his double marriage, an incident which caused deep concern to the friends of the struggling evangelical church, and gave a sad advantage to its enemies. But the last achievement even of the greatest heroes and the most energetic rulers, is the conquest and government of self.—P. L.
III.—KINGS OF MACEDON.
Philip II., born 382 b.c., was the youngest son of Amyntas II., king of Macedon. While a youth he passed some time at Thebes, where he studied the political condition of the Greeks, and was instructed in the art of war by Epaminondas. In 360 b.c., he succeeded his brother Perdiccas III. on the Macedonian throne. After subduing the Pæonians and Illyrians in some hard-fought battles, he was at leisure to turn his arms to the south of his dominions. Here he took the two important cities of Amphipolis and Pydna, 357 b.c. Potidæa was captured by him in the following year, and given to his allies, the people of Olynthus. The year 356 b.c. is memorable for the birth of Alexander the Great. About this time Philip got possession of the gold mines of Mount Pangæus, east of the Strymon, which he worked with such success as to derive from them a yearly revenue of more than one thousand talents. Near these mines he founded the famous city of Philippi. Meanwhile he was busily occupied with intrigues to form a party favourable to his interest throughout Greece, in disciplining and drilling his semi-barbarous soldiers, and in establishing his authority over the Illyrians and other warlike and uncivilized nations who surrounded his kingdom. It now became of great importance to him to have a secure hold over Thrace, before carrying his arms into southern Greece. Here in 353 b.c. he took the strong city of Methonæ, but lost an eye in the siege. In the same year he invaded Thessaly, then in a state of anarchy during the sacred war, and became involved in a struggle with the Phocians, who were also endeavouring to establish their power in Thessaly. Onomarchus, the Phocian general, defeated Philip and forced him to retire from the country; but in 352 b.c. Philip gained a decisive victory, in which Onomarchus was slain. He now captured Pheræ and Pagasæ, and all Thessaly submitted to his arms. Philip acquired much popularity by this war, in which he appeared as the champion of the Delphian god against the Phocians who had plundered his temple. He was, however, checked at the pass of Thermopylæ by an Athenian army, which prevented his further advance. The possession of Thessaly, however, enabled him seriously to annoy Athens. His fleet ravaged the Athenian islands of Lemnos and Imbrus, 351 b.c., insulted their coast, and endangered their commerce. Philip now resumed his aggressions upon Thrace, defeated the king Cersobleptes, and gained a large accession of territory. Demosthenes in vain endeavoured to arouse his countrymen to energetic action against their enemy. It was about this time that the first of the celebrated orations, termed the Philippics, was delivered. From 350-347 b.c. Philip was occupied in reducing the cities of Chalcidice, of which Olynthus with its confederate towns was the most important, and to this period belong the Olynthiac orations of Demosthenes. Thirty-two Chalcidian cities are said to have been destroyed by Philip, and the inhabitants sold for slaves, among whom were many Athenian citizens. In 346 b.c. the Thebans called in Philip to their aid against the Phocians. The latter surrendered Thermopylæ to Philip, and submitted to his power without resistance. In the same year the Athenians made peace with Philip, and the place and rights of Phocis in the Amphictyonic council were granted to him. He was soon elected president of the Amphictyonic assembly, and thus greatly strengthened his influence in Greece by acquiring a position which gave him an apparently legitimate claim, to interfere in her affairs. He continued his intrigues in Greece, inflaming the jealousy of each state against its neighbours, and bribing many of the leading Greek politicians, while he consolidated his power in the extensive regions he had already conquered. The peace between him and the Athenians lasted nominally till 340 b.c., in which year war broke out upon his attacking the cities of Perinthus and Byzantium in the Thracian Chersonese. Philip, who had gradually subdued nearly the whole of Thrace, was bent upon obtaining these towns, and the Athenians knowing their value resolved to prevent him. Both at Perinthus and Byzantium Philip was baffled, chiefly through the aid of the Athenian fleet under Phocion. In 339 b.c. the third sacred war began, and the intervention of Philip was invoked by the Amphictyonic council. He readily accepted the invitation, and marching through Thermopylæ seized the town of Elatea in Phocis. His next effort was to persuade Thebes to act with him against Athens. In this, however, he failed, the Thebans uniting their forces with those of Athens against him. The decisive battle of Chæronea, in which he signally defeated his combined adversaries, was fought in August, 338 b.c. The young Alexander here first displayed his military talents and energy. After the victory the Athenians were generously treated by Philip; their territory was left intact, and their prisoners restored without ransom. Thebes was more harshly dealt with; many of her citizens were put to death, a Macedonian garrison was placed in the Cadmea, and she was deprived of her supremacy over the other Bœotian cities. Philip now marched into the Peloponnesus where he strengthened his adherents in the several states, and punished Sparta by a diminution of her territory. A general congress was summoned by Philip at Corinth, to which all the Greek states sent representatives, Sparta excepted. By this assembly, Philip was recognized as captain-general of Greece against Persia, and large naval and military contributions were promised him for the war which he meditated against the Persian king. He undertook preparations on a very large scale for his Persian expedition, and in 336 b.c. he sent Parmenio and other officers with an army into Asia Minor, to concert measures there with the Greek cities against Persia. His marriage in 337 b.c. with Cleopatra, the daughter of Attalus, one of his generals, gave great offence to his queen Olympias and his son Alexander. An apparent reconciliation, however, took place, and in the summer of 336 b.c. Philip held a great festival at Ægæ, the ancient capital of Macedonia, to solemnize the nuptials of his daughter Cleopatra with a prince of Epirus. Pausanias, a noble Macedonian who had been injured by Philip, revenged himself by assassinating the king, and was cut to pieces on the spot by his guards. Philip was forty-six years of age at the time of his murder, and had reigned twenty-three years. He was certainly a great man, according to the common scale of princes, though not a hero like his son, nor to be tried by a philosophical model. If we charge him with duplicity in his political transactions, we must remember that he preferred the milder ways of gratifying his ambition to those of violence and bloodshed, that he at least desired the reputation of mercy and humanity. The many examples of generous for-
