anti-monarchic nature of some of Raynal's sentiments drew down upon his treatise the condemnation of the French authorities. It was proscribed by the parliament of Paris, and the author would have been apprehended if he had not retired to Germany After the lapse of a few years, and when the French revolution was at its earliest commencement, Raynal returned to Paris, where, having meanwhile changed his sentiments on political subjects, he addressed a letter in 1791 to the national assembly, predicting the fearful evils that would result from the Revolution. It was received with a storm of disapprobation, and the writer was styled an apostate and a dotard. Yet no personal injury was inflicted on him, and after overliving the period of terror, he died in quiet at the house of a friend at Chaillot, in March, 1796.—J. J.
RAYNOLDS. See Rainolds.
RAYNOUARD, François Juste Marie, an eminent French philologist, born at Brignolles in Provence in 1761, became an advocate to the parliament of Aix. On the breaking out of the Revolution he adopted the views of the party of the Girondins, and in 1793 was imprisoned by the Mountain faction, but recovered his liberty after the fall of Robespierre. Appointed a member of the legislative assembly in 1804, he produced in the following year, with extraordinary success, his tragedy of "Les Templiers," and in 1807 became a member of the Institute. He had a seat in the corps legislatif, and in 1813 he drew up the famous address which heralded the fall of the emperor. In 1814 he was a member of the chamber of deputies. On the reorganization of the French Academy in 1816 his name was retained on the list of members, and he was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He succeeded Suard as perpetual secretary of the French Academy in 1817. He published at intervals a series of works illustrative of the most interesting period of the history of his native district, the value of which has been acknowledged by all subsequent historians of literature. The following may be named as amongst the most important—"Monuments Historiques relatifs à la Condemnation des Chevaliers du Temple et à l'Abolition de leur Ordre," 1813; "Grammaire de la Langue des Troubadours;" "Grammaire Comparée des Langues de l'Europe Latine dans leurs rapports avec la Langue des Troubadours;" "Choix des Poésies Originales des Troubadours," 6 vols., 1816-24; "Observations Philologiques et Grammaticales sur le Roman du Rou;" and "Nouveau Choix des Poésies Originales des Troubadours," 1835. Raynouard died at Passy in 1836.
RAZZI, the name by which Giannantonio Bazzi is commonly called, though he is still better known as il Sodoma. Both names are corruptions; the first arose from an early misprint, and the second from the conversion of his name of Sodona, inscribed on a picture in the town hall of Siena, into Sodoma. He was born at Vercelli in Piedmont about 1477, and acquired the first principles of his art from Martino Spanzotti of Casale. He eventually settled in Siena, there acquired the freedom of the city, and became the most distinguished of its painters. He acquired great distinction for some frescoes in the monastery of Monte Oliveto, between Siena and Rome, which he completed in 1502. These spread his reputation to Rome, whither he was invited by Agostino Chigi; and he was employed also by Julius II., in the Vatican Stanze; but the pictures he painted there were destroyed shortly afterwards to make way for the works of Raphael. Razzi returned to Siena, where he married in 1510. His greatest works are the frescoes of the chapel of St. Catherine of Siena in the church of San Domenico, painted in 1526, still in a good state of preservation, and universally admired by artists. He executed several other important works at Siena, as late as 1538; he was then employed at Volterra, Pisa, and Lucca; but he eventually died poor in the great hospital of Siena, February 14, 1549, leaving an only daughter, married to his pupil Bartolomeo Neroni. Neither his great reputation nor his honours saved him from poverty; his works were chiefly fresco, and he was latterly careless. Had he been more employed in painting easel pictures in oil, his fortunes might have been better; works of this kind by Razzi are very scarce. The pope, Leo X., created him a cavaliere of the order of Cristo, and the Emperor Charles V. gave him the title of a count palatine of the empire; and Paolo Giovio, in a eulogium on Raphael, even compares Razzi with that painter.—(Vasari, Vite, &c., ed. Le Monnier; Speth, Kunst in Italien; Milanesi, Documenti per la Storia dell' arte Senese.)—R. N. W.
READING, John, a puritan divine, born in Buckinghamshire in 1588, was educated at Magdalen hall and Alban hall, Oxford. In 1616 he was appointed minister of St. Mary's, Dover, and was afterwards chaplain to Charles I. On the outbreak of the rebellion (1642), of which he disapproved, he was cast into prison, and his library was plundered. In the same year he was appointed to the living of Chartham in Kent, and made prebendary of Canterbury. Of these preferments he did not obtain possession till Charles II. was restored; but in 1644 he was allowed to become minister of Cheriton in Kent. Not long after he was again imprisoned on suspicion of being connected with a plot for the seizure of Dover castle. He died at Chartham, October 26, 1667. He was one of the nine authors of the Assembly's Annotations on the New Testament, and published various sermons and other theological works.—D. W. R.
REAL. See Saint Real.
REAUMUR, René Antoine Ferchault de, an eminent French naturalist, chemist and natural philosopher, was born at Rochelle in 1683. After attending the schools of his native town, he studied philosophy, first under the Jesuits at Poitiers, then at Bourges, and lastly at Paris in 1708. His earliest papers inserted in the Memoirs of the Academy, were on mathematical subjects, but he soon turned his main attention to natural history, studying especially insects and mollusca. Amongst his most noted papers on these subjects, we may name his researches on the formation of shells; on the silk of spiders (which he showed could not be collected on a large scale on account of their pugnacity); on the purple dye of the ancients; on artificial pearls; on the reproduction of amputated limbs in crustaceans, and on the shocks given by the torpedo, the electric nature of which he failed to detect. He determined by experiment that the strength of a rope was less than the joint strength of its component fibres, a result deemed paradoxical until explained by Duhamel. He investigated the colouring matter of the turquoise, but came to a false conclusion. In 1722 he wrote a work on the manufacture of malleable iron and steel. Steel he considered to be iron impregnated with combustible (in his language sulphureous) matter. He directs the bars of iron to be heated in a mixture of soot, charcoal powder, wood ashes, and common salt. For this work he was rewarded by the Regent Orleans with a pension of twelve thousand livres. He next discovered and published the method of tinning sheet-iron, which till then had been a secret peculiar to certain Germans. He investigated the art of making porcelain, then known only to the Chinese and the Saxons, and came to the correct conclusion, that this ware must consist of two ingredients, the one fusible at a strong heat, the other totally infusible. He also observed the devitrification of glass on being allowed to cool very slowly. He effected an improvement in the thermometer, taking the freezing point of water as zero, and dividing the space between this point and the boiling point of water into eighty degrees. He has also left papers on the auriferous rivers of France, on the fossil shells of Touraine, and a very important series of observations on the digestion of birds. His unfinished work, "History of Insects," Paris, 1734-42, contains a wonderful mass of original and valuable observations. He died, 17th October, 1756, universally beloved and respected.—J. W. S.
REBOLLEDO, Bernardino, Count of, one of the few old Spanish poets who are still remembered in Spain, was born in Leon in 1597, and served from an early age in the army. For his service in the Thirty Years' war he received from the Emperor Ferdinand the title of count. In 1647 he was appointed ambassador to Denmark, and enjoyed great consideration both at the Danish court and that of Queen Christina of Sweden. The first volume of his poetical works was published at Cologne in 1650; the second at Copenhagen in 1655. They consist of lyrical poems, some in the old national form, then on the decline, and the other in the Italian style. His lighter poems, entitled "Ocios" (Leisure hours), were published at Antwerp in 1660. He also wrote a play—"Love despises danger;" a paraphrase of the books of Job and Jeremiah; a poem on the art of war and state policy; and some excellent madrigals. The best edition of his works is that of Madrid, 1778.—F. M. W.
RECAMIER, Jeanne François Julie Adelaide de, Madame, was born at Lyons, 4th December, 1777, her father, Jean Barnard, being a notary of that city. At the early age of sixteen Madlle. Bernard, already remarkable for her beauty and talents, attracted the notice of M. de Recamier, a rich Parisian
