heart of the agricultural interior, making cheap freight rates for farm-products. Five transcontinental railroads come into the state from the east. There are 6,000 miles of steam railroads within the state. Suburban electric lines for passengers and freight reach for trade in every direction, stimulated by the abundant power of the mountain waterfalls.
The completion of the Panama Canal will greatly add to California's commercial advantage, extending her markets and lowering the freight rates to the eastern states and all Atlantic ports.
Manufactures. The manufacturing establishments are mostly found in San Francisco and around the shores of San Francisco Bay. They include sugar refineries, oil refineries, flour mills, powder mills, reduction works, tanneries, machine shops, chemical works. There are extensive canneries for fruit and vegetables in all parts of the state. There are nine large beet-sugar factories, producing more than 40 thousand tons of sugar per year. The value of manufactured products is over five hundred million dollars per year.
Education. The educational system stands very high. It undertakes to provide as good a teacher and as well equipped a school for the small remote rural communities as for the larger centers of population. Every district must maintain a free school for at least six months every year. Sixty dollars per month are a minimum salary for the rural teacher. Thirty dollars per year per pupil are raised for the schools by public taxation on the state and the county. The rural school houses and grounds throughout the state are remarkably handsome and well improved. Few of them cost less than $2,000 each. The county is the unit in school administration, presided over by a county superintendent of schools and a county board of education. Over the whole state there are a superintendent of public instruction and a state board of education. By way of higher education there are eight state normal schools, over two hundred high schools, one polytechnic school, a state university with 3,000 students, the famous Leland Stanford Jr. University, with an endowment of thirty million dollars, and a large number of sectarian and private institutions. There are two state reform-schools and about forty orphan schools.
History. The coast was visited by Sir Francis Drake in 1579. The first settlement was made at San Diego in 1769 by Spanish priests coming from Mexico. A chain of twenty-one missions for christianizing the Indians was built along the coast by the Franciscan fathers during the next fifty years, among them San Luis Rey, San Juan Capistrano, San Gabriel, San Buenaventura, Santa Barbara, Santa Ynez, San Luis Obispo and Monterey, reaching from San Diego in the south to Sonoma in the north. These missions became rich in flocks and herds and choicest lands. The social life and the political history of California revolved around them. The Mexican government secularized the missions in 1834, and during the next few years the Mexican governors of California granted their rich lands to Spanish and Mexican families. These grants form the basis of the land-system to the present day. California came into the possession of the United States in 1848, at the close of the Mexican War, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Gold was discovered at Coloma in the Sacramento Valley the same year. This at once brought a rush of population that was the wonder of the world. In 1850 the state was admitted full fledged to the Union. Since that time its history has been merged in that of the United States.
Califor′nia, Gulf of, a gulf of the Pacific Ocean between the peninsula of Lower California and Mexico. It is about 700 miles long and from 40 to 100 miles wide. The Colorado River and several other streams empty into it from the east. Many small bays indent its coasts, while several islands stud its surface. On its shores are the ports of Loreto, La Paz and Guaymas. The northern harbor is full of shoals, hidden rocks and dangerous currents, but the southern part is safer. The west coast abounds in pearl oysters, but the fishing is now little pursued, though formerly it was important.
Califor′nia, Lower or Old, is a peninsula and territory of Mexico, and is separated from the remainder of Mexico by the Gulf of California. Its area is 58,328 square miles, a little more than a third of the state of California. Its capital is La Paz. The surface of the country is mostly mountainous, the climate is dry, and little farming is done except in some of the valleys. Whale-fishing on the west coast and pearl fishing on the gulf are carried on to some extent; but mining enterprises have met with little success. Salt and orchil, a violet dye, are also obtained. The vintage of parts of the country is highly esteemed. Lower California was probably discovered by Cortés in 1536. In 1866 part of it was granted to the Lower California Company with considerable privileges. Cortés named it California, i. e., Hot Furnace, on account of its heat. Population, 52,244.
Caligula (kȧ-lĭg′ū́-lȧ), Gaius Cæsar Augustus Germanicus, Roman emperor from 37 to 41 A. D., was born 12 A. D., the son of the popular Germanicus. In the camp he was nicknamed Caligula or Little Boot, from the soldier's boots which he wore. On the death of Tiberius he was appointed heir, together with the grandson of the emperor; but the senate made him sole emperor. At first he was lavishly generous and merciful, though at the same
