national army. The navy after the war with Japan did not number more than a few small cruisers and several old torpedo-boats. China has never cared to have anything to do with western nations, but has been forced to do so. In 1516 the Portuguese, followed by the Spaniards, the Dutch and the English, appeared at Canton. In 1767 sprang up the opium-traffic. It was the traffic in this drug that brought on the war with England in 1840 and the war with England and France in 1855–57. By these wars China was forced to cede the island of Hong-Kong to Great Britain, to open many of its ports to trade and to let in missionaries and admit opium. It has recently been semi-officially announced that the importation of opium will after the lapse of a few years be prohibited.
On Feb. 24, 1844, Caleb Cushing arrived in China and negotiated the first treaty between that country and the United States. The late emperor came to the throne as a child of four years old. He became king in his own name in 1887; though in 1898 an imperial edict announced that the empress-dowager would direct the affairs of the empire. Of late years the Chinese have shown a tendency to seek a livelihood abroad, especially in California, British Columbia, the Straits Settlements, the East Indies and Australia. Chinese workmen or coolies began to come to the United States about the time of the discovery of gold. In 1882, 33,614 came. The low wages at which the coolie was willing to work threatened to destroy the high wages of American laborers; and this led to action by Congress prohibiting their immigration to the United States, although permitting Chinese merchants and students to travel or live in the country. British Columbia and some of the Australian colonies have also passed similar exclusion-laws. In 1894 China became involved in war with Japan, the result of rival interests in Korea. She, however, proved no match for Japan on land or sea. Her armies were routed and her fleet destroyed, and in 1895 she secured peace by the payment of a heavy war-indemnity and the cession to Japan of the island of Formosa. Of 34 ports open to foreign trade, only 7 have less than 20,000 population.
The very symbol of the “unchanging East” in her intense conservatism and apparent indifference to the movements of the world beyond her boundaries, her own easy and swift defeat by Japan and the subsequent victory of Japan over Russia produced a profound change in China and the mental attitude of the Chinese people. It convinced the leaders of national thought of the utter incompetence and corruption of their Manchu rulers and of the superiority of Western education, military and industrial methods and ideals. The more intelligent among the Chinese began, through these leaders, to demand better government, the right to take part in it, the increase and modernization of the army, the substitution of European for Confucian subjects in the Civil Service examinations and the establishment of schools similar to those of America and Europe.
Alarmed by these rumblings of the gathering storm, the government began the usual process of making pretended concessions. Late in August, 1908, an imperial decree announced that nine years from date—that time being required to fit the people for the proposed measure of self-government—a parliament and constitution would be granted. This failing to quiet popular discontent, another edict, three years later, provided for a cabinet and council to assist the emperor, but a president under the control of the throne was given the right of veto over other members. Exasperated by the delay in establishing real constitutional government, the people rose in various parts of the empire until the uprising assumed the form of a general rebellion and within a few months had become a revolution. Beginning in September, 1911, it was practically ended by December, and on December 29 Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen, who was educated in America and who had been particularly active in the campaign, was elected president of the “Provisional Government of the United Provinces of China.” The child emperor, Pu-Yi, through the regent, abdicated, and on February 12 issued a proclamation which closed the 267 years reign of the Manchus and established the Chinese republic. The premier of the empire, Yuan-Shih-Kai (Yo͝o-än′ shē ki′), was chosen president. Serious dissensions, particularly over the finances, arose between the new president and the council, but, the government was maintained and the first nation to take official notice of the establishment of the republic was the United States, which by concurrent resolution of Congress extended congratulations to the people of China. This action was followed on May 2, 1913, by formal recognition by President Wilson.
William J. Calhoun, our minister to China during her revolution, says: “The Chinese republic is, of course, not up to our standards, but that cannot be expected. The great mass are ignorant, living in mud walled houses without windows or doors, but they are a peace-loving, industrious people and the whole impulse of China is toward modern education. In this the missionaries are doing a wonderful work.”
Chinese Wall, The. The construction of this great feature of the Middle Kingdom was finished in 214 B. C., as a grand barrier along the north of the Chinese empire. It is 1,500 miles long, and is constructed of two strong retaining walls of brick, rising from granite foundations,
