Lennep, some of whose stories have been
translated into English. “Multatuli” (Dekker)
has in Max Havelaar written a book
which has been translated into most European
languages, and is a work of genius.
Scandinavian Literature
This has been written in Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The Eddas are two collections of old Scandinavian literature. The younger or prose Edda was written by the Icelander Snorri Sturluson about 1230. It is in three parts: the first a series of stories told by the god Odin to Gylfi, a Swedish king; the second and third are on the art of poetry and prosody. The elder Edda consists of legends in verse of Scandinavian gods and heroes. It was written mainly in Iceland from the 9th to the 11th century. Of great importance also are the Icelandic sagas, which were chronicles, local and family histories and biographies, as the Christian Saga, the story of the introduction of Christianity into Iceland, and the Chronicle of the Norwegian Kings. These sagas were numerous, and many of them were masterpieces of literary writing. This is all the more remarkable when it is remembered that, when this valuable literature flourished in this out-of-the way corner of the world, Europe was sunk in ignorance.
Sagas also form the early literature of Norway. There are no distinctively Norwegian writings of ability till modern times. The creator of this modern literature was Wergeland (1808-45), who addressed his poetry to the peasants. Jansen wrote good lyrics, Garborg wrote strong tales and novels, and Björnson's tales from peasant-life are of great merit. Ibsen in his poems and plays has shown power and genius, a desire for truth and a strongly realistic way of looking at things. The same, practically, may be said of the novels of Jonas Lie.
The early Danish popular songs were collected by Vedel in 1591. In the 18th century Ludvig Holberg wrote stories, poems and plays, and founded Copenhagen Theater. His most popular plays were The Pewter Statesman and The Arabian Powder. His History of Denmark is a standard work. The next poet of first rank was Johannes Evald, who, besides his plays of Balder's Death, The Harlequin Patriot etc., wrote the national song, King Christian at the High Mast Stands. The popular lyric poet was Jens Baggesen, while the leading poet of the 19th century is Adam Oehlenschläger, among whose plays are Baldur the Good and Gods of the North. The great novelist of Denmark was Hans Christian Andersen, who, however, is best known by his short tales and fairy-stories, which have been translated into most modern languages. The contemporary writer, Georg Brandes, born in 1842, has won fame as critic and littérateur, especially as a student and expositor of Shakespeare.
The earliest Swedish literature was the heroic and chivalric ballads. In the 14th century chronicles and some lyrics were written. Stjernhjelm (1598-1672) first wrote sonnets, and his best masque is The Captive Cupid. The great botanist, Linné, powerfully influenced literary activity by his own work and through the pupils that surrounded him, many of whom became celebrated. In theology in the 18th century the great name was Swedenborg. Bellman (1740-95) was a song-writer of power. The foremost Swedish historian is Geijer (1783-1847), while Tegnér (1782-1846) is the chief poet of the country. His Frithiof's Saga, translated by Holcomb and by Sherman, is an epic worthy of Scott. Other leading modern poets were Franzén, Atterbom, the historian Geijer and Stagnelius. One of the best of Swedish tragedies is the Eric XIV of Börjesson; while no comedies stand higher than those of three women: Fredrika Bremer, E. S. Carlén and Mme. Schwartz. Perhaps the most powerful Swedish novel is The Last Athenian by Viktor Rydberg.
German Literature
This dates back to the rude literatures of the races whose union has formed the German people. Charlemagne made a collection of German popular poetry, and during the days of chivalry many nobles and men of humbler birth belonged to the minnesinger or singers of love, who roamed from castle to castle and court to court, and sang the history of Troy and the story of King Arthur and his knights. It is to this period that the greatest treasures of German national literature belong, the Nibelungen Lied and Gudrun, epic poems telling of the heroic combats of the gallant Sigfried and how he won the hand of Kriemhild, the world's wonder of grace and beauty, the daughter of King Gunther; of Brunhilde, the unconquerable warrior-queen; of the Nibelungen treasure sunk in the Rhine; of Etzel (Attila) the Hun; and of the great battle and death of the heroes in Hungary. In the 15th century the mysteries and passion plays were at their height, which still linger in a few places (notably Oberammergau) and gave origin to the German drama. During the Reformation Luther's translations of the Bible fixed the literary language of the Germans, and his beautiful hymns are still sung.
The brilliant epoch of modern German literature begins with Lessing, and since his time every branch of scholarship and learning has been enriched by German genius, and the Germans are acknowledged the foremost scholars of the day. In philosophy the intellectual brilliancy and keenness of Kant, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel have few parallels in any other coun-
