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Salyut 6. Progress craft deliver propellants, pressurant, air, air regenerators, water, food, clothing, bedding, mail, and other supplies. Resupply by specialized spacecraft in turn called for multiple docking ports, one for the resident crew’s Soyuz Ferry and at least one for the resupply spacecraft. Progress freighters not only resupply the stations—they also deliver repair parts and new apparatus, permitting the stations’ useful lives to be extended well beyond their original design lifetimes. Along with Soyuz, Progress stood in for the malfunctioning orbit maintenance engines on the Salyuts, preventing premature reentry. (Kvant docked at the Mir base block rear port in 1987, blocking the base block’s orbit maintenance engines. Since then, Mir has relied exclusively for orbit maintenance on Progress and Soyuz craft.) The Soyuz Ferry had a limited endurance docked to a station— about 60 to 90 days. Two alternatives were available if long-duration crews were to remain aboard for longer periods: The Soyuz Ferry could be upgraded to increase its endurance. This drove development of the Soyuz-T, which had an endurance of about 120 days, and the Soyuz-TM, which can stay with a station for at least 180 days. As a resident crew’s Soyuz neared the end of its rated endurance, a visiting crew could be sent to dock at the second port in a fresh Soyuz. They would return to Earth in the aging spacecraft, leaving the fresh one for the resident crew. A variation on this theme had an unmanned Soyuz being sent to the station to replace the resident crew’s aging spacecraft. This was done only once, when Soyuz 34 replacedSoyuz 32.

Soyuz-T development appears to have been influenced by ASTP Soyuz development. Soyuz-T development in turn affected development of the Progress upgraded for Mir (first flown to Salyut 7 as Cosmos 1669 in 1985). Soyuz-T begat Soyuz-TM: the primary difference between the two craft was that Soyuz-T used the old Igla (“needle”) approach system, while Soyuz-TM used the Kurs (“course”) system. Many Soyuz-TM modifications were in turn applied to Progress-M, the most recent new Soyuz derivative. Soyuz-derived craft might have played yet another role in the Soviet/Russian manned space program. By 1980, work commenced to convert Progress craft into specialized space station modules for the first truly multimodular station—what became Mir. But these were replaced by space station modules derived from an entirely different type of vehicle (see part 3, “Space Station Modules”). The Gamma astrophysics satellite would have been the first Progress-derived module, but it was redesigned to fly as an independent satellite.[1] 1.2.9 Soyuz Generations The manned Soyuz spacecraft can be assigned to design generations. Soyuz 1 through 11 (1967-1971) were first-generation vehicles. The first generation encompassed the Original Soyuz and Salyut 1 Soyuz. The second generation, the Soyuz Ferry, comprised Soyuz 12 through 40 (1973-1981). ASTP Soyuz served as a technological bridge to the thirdgeneration Soyuz-T spacecraft (1976-1986). Soyuz-TM is fourthgeneration. These generation designations provide a useful shorthand method for referring to the vehicles. They also parallel similar designations applied to Soviet/Russian space stations and other spacecraft.[2]

1.2.10 Crew Code Names Code names used as call signs in radio communications are a traditional fixture of the Soviet/Russian space program. They date from the first manned spaceflight (Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961) and reflect the evolution of Soviet spacecraft and procedures. When they were first adopted, one code name was adequate—Vostok was a singleseater. With the modification of Vostok into the multiseater Voskhod and the development of the multiseater Soyuz, code name conventions changed. The crew code names listed with the names of cosmonauts in the “Mission Description” subsections whichfollow are in actuality the code names of each mission’s commander. For example, the Soyuz-TM 12 flight crew was called Ozon (“Ozone”) because that was commander Anatoli Artsebarski’s code name. Following tradition, his flight engineer, Sergei Krikalev, was called Ozon Dva (“Ozone-2”). Helen Sharman, a cosmonaut-researcher, sat in Soyuz-TM 12’s third seat. Cosmonautresearcher is a designation roughly equivalent to the designation Payload Specialist in the U.S. Shuttle program. As cosmonaut-researcher, Sharman was called Ozon Tri (“Ozone-3”). Spacecraft swaps and partial crew exchanges in the space station era also changed code name conventions. Crew code names travel with the commander, and crew members take on the code name of the commander with whom they travel. For example, Helen Sharman returned to Earth in Soyuz-TM 11 with commander Viktor Afanasyev (code name Derbent) and flight engineer Musa Manorov (Derbent Dva). She thus became Derbent Tri for her return to Earth. Sergei Krikalev became Donbass Dva after

1. Dmitri Payson, “We’ll Build a Space Station for a Piece of Bread,” Rossiyskiye Vesti, June 1, 1993, p. 8. Translated in JPRS Report, Science & Technology, Central Eurasia: Space, June 28, 1993 (JPRSUSP-93-003), p. 13.
2. Mark Severance, personal communication.