Page:The American Cyclopædia (1879) Volume IV.djvu/16

CARNEIA CARNICER city. He was not an author, but transmitted his doctrines to his disciples by word of mouth, like Socrates. So far as the philosophy of Carneades is known, its substance may be con- densed thus: Every perception is a certain change or movement in a sensible being, bring- ing to consciousness first itself, and secondly some object without. In respect to the object, the perception is either true or false ; in respect to the one who perceives, either probable or improbable. There exists no test to decide on the truth or untruth of a perception, that is to say, on the relation which the perception bears to the object by which it is caused. There is no objective certainty, or guarantee that real existing- things are essentially reproduced by the human perception ; but whatever the re- lation of human perception to reality, to man himself the mere probability, the test of which lies within the limits of his mind, is sufficient for all practical purposes. Thus much may be designated as the affirmative portion of the philosophy of Carneades ; the practical portion was his criticism of the then existing philo- sophical system, a criticism based merely upon the supposition that the affirmations and nega- tions of human language comprise all existing possibilities, so that if both should be refuted a non est would be proven. Carneades pretends to prove the non-existence of God by the fol- lowing reasoning: God is either a rational and sensitive being, or he is not. If he is, then he would be subject to sensations agreeable and disagreeable, to likes and dislikes; but if so, he would be a changeable being, and, as such, lia- ble to destruction. On the other hand, if God is not a rational and sensitive being, then he could not have been the creator of reason and sensation. Again: God is either finite or infinite. If the latter, then he would be motionleas, and therefore inactive ; if the former, there would be something that was more than he, because limiting him. By similar arguments he gets rid of all general ideas of morality, human rights, duties, &c. But when he seems to have de- stroyed everything, lie suddenly turns round, concluding that all these arguments prove merely that absolute metaphysical knowledge is as unnecessary as it is impossible ; that man ought to be satisfied with probabilities and ex- pediencies, which are amply sufficient to se- cure his well-being. CARXEIA (Gr. K&pvtia), a national festival of the Spartans, celebrated in honor of Apollo, and in the Spartan month Carneios (August). The festival lasted nine days, during which the Spartans were not allowed to entV upon a hos- tile campaign. Y CARNELIAN (Lat. caro, gen. eaTvm^flesh; call- ed by the ancients sarda), a clear red chalcedo- ny, one of the numerous varieties of the quartz family of minerals. (See AGATE.) It^is found resembling flesh in its colors, whence it^name. By exposure to the sun and baking, the Colors are deepened. Together with agates, carne- lians are quarried in great quantities in differ- ent parts of India, particularly in the region of Cambay, whence the name commonly ap- plied to them all of Cambay stones. They are also brought to the lapidary workshops at Cambay from different parts of Guzerat, to be worked up into round and flat necklaces, beads, bracelets, armlets, seals, marbles, chess men, studs, rings, &c., which give employment in their manufacture to nearly 2,000 people. Between the Bowa Gore and Bowa Abbas hills, on the plain, are small mounds, in which the stones are quarried by the Bheels of the district. They sink shafts, and excavate hori- zontal galleries, working underground with lamps. The stones, being brought to the sur- face and sorted, are purchased of the miners in the village of Ruttunpoor, by the contractor or his agents. When a considerable quantity is collected, a trench is dug in a field two feet in depth and three in breadth. In this a fire is made with the dung of goats and cows, and upon it earthen pots containing the stones are placed in rows. The fire is kept up from sun- set to sunrise, when the pots are removed, and the stones piled away. These once a year are carted to Nemodra, then sent down the river in canoes to Broach, and thence in boats to Cambay. The manufacture of beads from the rough stone is thus conducted: The stones, brought to a convenient size, are chipped into a rounded form upon the point of an iron, standing inclined in the ground. Another workman then takes them, and fixing a num- ber of equal size in wooden or bamboo clamps, rubs them on a coarse, hard polishing stone ; they are then transferred to another man, who secures them in clamps, and rubs them on all their sides against a ground polishing board, smeared with a composition of emery and lae. The final polish is given by putting several hundreds or thousands of the beads into a stout leathern bag, about 2 ft. long and 10 or 12 in. in diameter, with some emery dust and the carnelian powder obtained in boring the holes ' through the beads. The mouth of the bag is tied up, and a flat thong is bound around its centre. Two men seated at opposite ends of a room then roll it back and forth between them, keeping up the operation from 10 to 16 days, the bag being kept moistened with water. When the beads are well polished, they are passed to the workmen who bore the holes. This is done by means of a steel drill tipped with a small diamond, the work being kept wet by water dripping upon it. Carnelian is a com- mon mineral in many localities in the United States, especially on Lake Superior, in Missouri, and on the upper Mississippi. It is used for numerous articles of jewelry, and is cut on a leaden plate with emery, and polished on wood with pumice stone. CARMCKR, Ramon, a Spanish composer, born at Tarrega, Oct. 24, 1789, died in Madrid, March 17, 1855. He studied music, chiefly in Barce- lona, and was more than ten years leader of the orchestra in the opera there, till 1828, when