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538 CHRISTIANITY called. Constituted as the human mind is, it would be impossible that two such points as that of the Son of God dwelling in human flesh, and that of the Spirit or grace of God dwelling in the human mind, should not lead to much speculation and discussion in respect to the mode of the union. The scholastic theologians added little on these points to the doctrines taught by Athanasius and Augustine. Indeed, it was their office not so much to dis- cover truth as to confirm the decisions of the church. What most characterized the scho- lastic age in respect to doctrines was the standing controversy with speculative mystics on the one hand, and numerous sects of sepa- ratists on the other. There was scarcely a time when both of these tendencies were not ably represented. When Christianity became the acknowledged religion of the state, the whole outward condition of the church was changed. Politics and religion were hence- forth combined. Sometimes the state ruled the church, and sometimes the church ruled the state ; but never were both kept strictly within their own bounds. We have only to look into the laws of the Christian emperors and the acts of the bishops to find abundant evidence on this point. At the beginning of this period the imperial court at Constantino- ple exercised a most decisive influence over the church. Not only were high ecclesiastics often dependent on the emperor, and subject to his will, but even councils were awed by his presence. At a later period, and in the West, the head of the church exercised author- ity over all Christian states. From the nature of the case, where there is such a union of the civil and ecclesiastical power, the one or the other must rule. There must be a last resort in all cases of collision. Thus, under Con- stantine, the church obtained protection and support, but in many cases at the expense of its independence. It rose politically and sunk morally at the same time. Piety and learning and missionary zeal retired more and more to the desert. Ambition both in church and state was renounced by the more devout, that in a life of meditation and prayer, and of pov- erty, after the example of Christ, they might live only for the world to come, and for the spiritual interests of mankind. Many of the greatest and best men of the early church chose this mode of life. In after times mo- nasticism wore a very different aspect. The population of Christendom underwent great changes during the period introduced by Con- stantine and closed by Charlemagne. While paganism was completely extinguished, and Christianity was carried into Persia and even to India and Abyssinia, the Mohammedan pow- er, taking its rise in Arabia, blotted out Chris- tianity from the map of Asia and Africa, of the eastern church left but feeble remains in Greece and Constantinople, seized upon a part of Spain, and threatened France, and indeed all the borders of the empire except the northern. Still more were the fortunes of Christendom affected from another quarter. The German races, a more vigorous stock, subdued the de- generate and feeble inhabitants of the empire. The ancient Christianity was almost obliterated, and the loose nominal Christianity of Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Burgundians swept murderously over the south and west of Eu- rope. Afterward the Franks and Saxons, and other German tribes, came nominally into the pale of Christendom, regenerating and in- vigorating it politically, but pouring into the church a semi-barbarous population, which it required centuries to subdue and civilize. The church had enough to do to manage the half- heathen population which was thus poured into its own bosom. Its missionary work was al- most necessarily limited to its own borders. In the conversion of these tribes, the monks of Ireland, England, and the east of France had shown great zeal, and in prosecuting their work a large number nobly sacrificed their lives. But too many among these German tribes were converted either as soldiers at the command of their royal leaders, or as subdued enemies by authority of their conquerors. The banks of the Elbe were for two centuries wet with human gore by such contests between the German and Slavic races. With a popula- tion so introduced into the church, it is not strange that the wild, tumultuous character of the middle ages should show itself as much in the church as in the state. Herein lies the cause, if not the justification, of the Roman hierarchy. The concentrated authority of all Christendom, backed by the awful sanctions of religion, was, by the ecclesiastics of the age, deemed necessary in order to hold these fierce spirits in check. Certainly in the first half of this long period the nations of western Europe were indebted in no small degree to the church for the order that prevailed in society. Many other causes, indeed, cooperated to elevate the hierarchy, and to complete its organization. The church, which in the time of the earliest heresies and of the persecutions strove after unity through the bishops and through synods, became in a higher degree a united catholic church under the influence of Constantino and of the general councils. Its organization more and more resembled that of the empire. Sin- gle churches governed by their pastors, the churches of the various dioceses governed by their respective bishops, the churches of a province governed by synods and metropoli- tans, and whole countries governed as patri- archates, all seemed to imply the highest unity in a single head similar to that of the empire. But all these parts of a general organization were not equally complete. The hierarchi- cal system was somewhat variable. In after times some things were retained, some went into disuse, and some received further devel- opment. The unity of the church was weak- ened by the jealousy between the eastern and western churches, and between the Greek pa-