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FRANCE for the crafty Ferdinand of Aragon. By the latter he was expelled for ever from Naples, of which he had partly taken possession, while Pope Julius II., the republic of Venice, and the princes of Italy, availing themselves of Spanish, German, and even English alliances (forming at one time what was called the holy league), forced him out of the duchy of Milan, which he claimed in right of his grand- mother, Valentina Visconti, and which he had twice conquered. Francis I., the successor and distant relative of Louis, in his turn ap- peared in Italy as a conqueror, and his first victory at Marignano or Melegnano (1515) seemed to forebode permanent conquest ; but he was opposed by the emperor Charles V., and after his disastrous defeat at Pavia in 1525, he was carried a prisoner to Madrid. Here, in order to regain his freedom, he agreed, in Jan- uary, 1526, to a treaty, by which he forfeited Burgundy and all claims to Naples, Milan, Tour- nay, and Arras. But no sooner was he set at liberty than he secured from the pope his re- lease from the oaths binding him to this ar- rangement, and concluded with the holy see, the duke of Milan, and the republic of Venice the second holy league. In 1527 Henry VIII. of England was Induced to join the alliance. But the results of the struggle that followed were unfavorable to the French. Pope Clement VII. was forced to conclude an accommodation with the emperor, and Francis w,as compelled to acquiesce in the so-called "ladies' peace," concluded at Cambrai (1529) by female relatives of the contending monarchs, which was but lit- tle less disastrous than that of Madrid. In the mean time, and while the wars between the king and Charles V. had been in progress, a new force had appeared in European politics. The reformation had begun, and the emperor was now obliged to turn his attention to Germany. During the two or three years following the peace of Cambrai, the dissensions in that coun- try afforded Francis an opportunity of weak- ening his rival by more or less directly en- couraging the Protestant princes there in their hostile attitude toward the imperial power. The French army was also strengthened during this period; an alliance was concluded with England in 1532; and in 1536 the war again broke out, after Francis had in vain endeavored to persuade Charles to a peaceable acknowl- edgment of his Italian claims. A severe strug- gle followed ; and though a peace for ten years was signed at Nice in 1538, and the ministers of Francis strove to keep it, various incidents led to a renewed hostility, and in 1542 the con- flict again began. It soon took an unfavorable course for the French; the emperor had by 1544 so far invaded French territory that he even threatened Paris ; and in September of that year the peace of Crespy put an end to the war during the life of Francis ; for so exhausted were the resources of the kingdom that no further campaign could be undertaken before that king's death in 1547. His son and suc- cessor, Henry II., the first part of whose reign was occupied with a war against England, re- newed in 1552 the struggle against the Haps- burgs, which continued with brief intermissions till 1559, when the peace of Cateau-Cambresis gave to it a decidedly favorable termination for the French. The English, who had allied themselves with the enemy, gave up by this treaty their last possessions in France. In the last years of the conflict, however, Henry II. had allied himself with the Protestant princes of Germany, and had thus in some degree, though unwillingly, favored the spread of the Protestant ideas in France, where Calvinism had already gained a wide-spread influence among the people, and had found many adhe- rents among the nobles. Both Francis I. and Henry II. had attempted to check the progress of the new beliefs, and had resorted to the greatest oppression and persecution to attain this end. Henry's son and successor, Fran- cis II. (1559-'60), so increased these during his short reign as to arouse the Huguenots to self- defence, which they were now strong enough to attempt ; and with this period began the disastrous religious civil wars which raged so fiercely in France, and lasted with more or less violence till 1598. No fewer than eight such wars were waged during the reigns of Charles IX. and Henry III., a period of 28 years. The Protestants held their ground with tenacity ; the most illustrious among their chiefs, Admiral Gaspard de Coligni, accomplished wonders ; but thoroughly honest and too ready to confide in the honesty of others, he permitted himself to be deceived by the fair promises of Catharine de' Medici, Charles's mother, and with thou- sands of his companions was treacherously murdered on St. Bartholomew's night, 1572. This fearful massacre did not however annihi- late the Protestants, who continued the strug- gle against the holy league or Catholic union, which had been organized for the better pro- tection of the Catholic church in France, and which was upheld by the pope as well as Philip II. of Spain. The head of the league, Duke Henry of Guise, secretly aimed at the crown, and his popularity seemed to warrant his suc- cess, when Henry III. during the session of the states general at Blois, in 1588, had him des- patched by his body guards, known as the " forty-five." A few months later, in 1589, the king himself fell by the dagger of the fanatic Jacques C16ment, leaving his crown to Henry of Navarre, the head of the family of Bourbon, and the leader of the Protestants. The struggle henceforth took essentially a political turn ; and Henry, joined by but a few of the Catho- lics who had served his predecessor, and much reduced in circumstances, had great difficulty in making good his claims to the crown. His personal qualities and bravery finally conciliated many of the Catholic royalists, but he could hope to be recognized as king by the majority of the nation only on his conversion to Cathol- icism. To this he assented, July 25, 1593;