A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practised in India and the Malay Archipelago/A Record of Buddhist Practices sent Home from the Southern Sea

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A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practised in India and the Malay Archipelago
by Yijing, translated by Takakusu Junjiro

A Record of Buddhist Practices sent Home from the Southern Sea

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4309750A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practised in India and the Malay Archipelago — A Record of Buddhist Practices sent Home from the Southern SeaTakakusu JunjiroYijing

A RECORD OF BUDDHIST PRACTICES

SENT HOME FROM THE SOUTHERN SEA

By I-TSING.

INTRODUCTION.

In the beginning, as the three thousand worlds were being produced, there appeared a sign of their coming into existence. When all things were created, there was as yet no distinction between animate and inanimate things. The universe was an empty waste, without either sun or moon revolving. While misery and happiness were in an undistinguished state, there was no difference between positive and negative principles. When the Brahman gods (lit. 'pure heaven') came down to the earth, their bodily light naturally followed them. As they derived their nourishment from the fatness of the earth, there sprang up a greedy and grasping nature, and they began to consume one after another the creeping plants of the forest and fragrant grains of rice. When their bodily light gradually faded away, the sun and moon became manifest. The state of marriage and agriculture arose, and the principles relating to sovereign and subject, father and son, were established. Then the inhabitants looked up to the azure firmament above, and saw its heavenly bodies high and majestically floating in their splendour. Looking down they saw the yellow earth with the water ever moved by the wind, and the earth becoming more and more solid. The statements that the two principles, positive and negative, converted themselves into heaven and earth, and men came into being in the space between them^[1]; that, influenced by impure and pure air, the dualisation of nature came into existence of its own accord^[2]; and that the fashioning power of the two divisions of nature may be compared to the art of casting with its large furnace^[3], and that the production of all things can be likened to the making of clay images^[4],—all these are only absurd statements resulting from narrow learning. Thereupon the mountains stood firm, the stars were scattered above, and the inanimate beings spread and multiplied. At last their views became different, and they were classed under ninety-six heads; the principles (tattva) were divided into twenty-five classes. The Sânkhya system of philosophy teaches that all things came into existence from One^[5]. But the Vaiseshika system declares that the five forms of existence arose from the six categories (padârtha). Some think it necessary, in order to get rid of rebirth, to have their body naked (Digambara) and the hair plucked out; others insist, as the means of securing heaven, on anointing their body with ashes^[6] or tying up their locks of hair. Some say life is self-existent, while others believe that the soul becomes extinct on death. There are many who think that existence is a perfect mystery, dark and obscure, and its reality is not to be explored, and it is too minute and complicated for us to know whence we have come into being.

Others say that man always regains human form by recurring births, or that after death men become spirits. 'I do not know,' one says^[7], 'whether a butterfly became myself or whether I became a butterfly.' Once, when gathered together men imagined that they saw wasps in the place, and again coming together they were perplexed on finding caterpillars there^[8]. One compares Chaos with a bird's egg (anda), or Darkness with the state of an embryo (or infancy).

These people do not as yet realise that birth is in consequence of the grasping condition of mind and heart (Trishnâ. 'thirst'), and that our present existence is due to our former actions (Karma). Are they not thus plunged and floating in the sea of suffering, borne to and fro, as it were, by the stream of error?

It is only our Great Teacher, the highest of the world (Lokagyeshtha), the Sakya, who has himself pointed out an easy path, teaching an admirable principle, he who has explained the twelve chains of causation (Nidâna)^[9] and acquired the eighteen matchless qualities (Dharma)^[10], who has called himself the teacher of gods and men (Sâstâ Devamanushyânâm), or the Omniscient One (Sarvagña); he alone has led the four classes of living beings^[11] out of the House of Fire (the world), and delivered the three stages^[12] of existence from abiding in Darkness. He has crossed over the stream of Klesa (passion), and ascended to the shore of Nirvâna.

When our Sage first attained to Buddhahood on the Dragon River (Nâganadì, i. e. Nairañganâ)^[13], the nine classes of beings^[14] began to entertain hopes of emancipation. Then the removal of Light to the Deer Park (mrigadâva at Benares) brought satisfaction to the religious cravings of the six paths^[15] of existence.

As soon as he had begun to set in motion the Wheel of the Law, five persons^[16] first enjoyed the benefit of his teaching. Next, he taught the typical virtue (lit. 'the footsteps of Sila') of discipline, and thousands of people bowed their heads before him. Thereupon His Brahma-voice was heard in the city of Râgagriha, bringing salvation (fruit) to numberless souls.

Returning home to requite parental love in the Palace of Kapilavastu, he found numerous disciples who inclined their hearts to his teaching. He began his teaching with (the conversion of) Âgñâta Kaundinya^[17], whose first prayer he accepted in order to reveal the truth.

He concluded his career with the ordination of Subhadra^[17], so that the last period of his life should accord with his original wish (lit. 'tied-up mind, resolution').

Eight decades he lived, founding and protecting the Brotherhood; he preached his doctrine of salvation in the nine assemblages^[18]. Any doctrine, however hidden, he expounded in teaching. Even a man of little ability he received without reserve.

CHAPTER VII.

THE MORNING INSPECTION OF WATER AS TO INSECTS.

Water must be examined every morning. According as it is found in different places, i. e. in jars, in a well, in a pond, or in a river.

The means also of examining it differ. Early in the morning jar-water is first to be examined. After pouring about a handful of it, by inclining the jar, into a pure bronze cup, a ladle made of bronze, a conch-shell, or a plate of lacquer-work, pour it slowly on a brick. Or, by means of a wooden instrument made for this purpose, observe the water for some moments, shutting the mouth with the hand. It is likewise well to examine it in a basin or in a pot. Insects even as small as a hair-point must be protected. If any insects are found, return the water again into the jar, and wash the vessel with other water twice until no insects are left in it. If there is a river or a pond in the neighbourhood, take the jar there and throw away the water containing insects; then put in fresh filtered water. If there a well, use its water, after filtering it, according to the usual manner. In examining well-water, after some has been drawn, observe it in a water-vessel, taking about a handful of it in a bronze cup, as stated above. If there is no insect, then the water can be used through the night, and if any be found it must be filtered according to the process mentioned above. As to the examining of the water of a river or pond, details are found in the Vinaya^[23].

The Indians use fine white cloth for straining water; and in China fine silk may be used, after having slightly boiled it with rice-crcam; for small insects casily pass through the meshes of raw silk. Taking a piece of softened silk about four feet of the Hu-ch‘ih^[24] (name of a common measure), lay it lengthwise by taking its edges, then double it by taking both ends, and sew them together so as to form them into the shape of a net. Then attach cords to its two corners, and loops to both sides; and put across it a stick about one foot and six inches long, in order to stretch it wide. Now fasten its two ends to posts, while placing a basin under it. When you pour water into it from a pot, its bottom must be inside the strainer, lest some insects drop off together with the drops of water, and should hardly escape destruction by falling on the ground or into the basin. When water comes out through the strainer, scoop and examine it, and, if it contains some insects, then return the water, and, if it is clean enough, use it. As soon as enough water has been obtained, turn up the strainer, which is to be held at both ends by two persons, put it into the 'life-preserving vessel,' rinse it with water three times, and again pour water over it outside. Pour in water once more in order to see, by means of straining it, whether some insects still remain in it. If no insects be found, remove the strainer in any manner. Even after being thus filtered, the water, when a night has passed, is liable to need examining again; for one who neglects to examine the water that has stood through a night, whether it contains insects or not, is said, in the Vinaya, to be guilty.

There are many ways of protecting life while drawing water. The strainer just described is suitable in case of drawing water from a well. In a river or a pond you may filter the water by a double jar^[25] within the willow vessel safely placed in the water. During the sixth or the seventh month the insects are so minute, and different from what they are in the other seasons, that they can pass even through ten folds of raw silk.

Those who wish to protect life should try to set the insect free by some means or other. A plate-like tray maybe used for the purpose, but the silk strainer is also very useful. The tray is generally made of copper, in India, in accordance with the rules laid down by the Buddha : one must not neglect these points. The life-preserving vessel is a small water-pot with an open mouth as wide as the vessel itself. It has two knobs on the sides of the bottom-part, to which cords are fastened. When it is let down into water, it is turned upside down, and, after having been plunged into water twice or thrice, it is drawn up.

The high priests must not touch the filters used in the temple, nor the water kept in a room for filtering purposes. The lower priests who have not yet received full ordination, can take and drink any water ; but if they drink at an improper time they ought to use a clean strainer, clean jar, and pure vessels, such as are fit to be used. As regards living creatures, an injury to them is a sin, and is prohibited by the Buddha.

It is this prohibition that is the most weighty of all, and an act of injury is placed at the head of the ten sins. One must not be neglectful of this. The filter is one of the six possessions^[26] necessary to the priests, and one cannot do without it. One should not go on a journey three or five Chinese miles without a filter. If a priest be aware of the fact that the residents in the temple where he is staying do not strain their water, he must not partake of food there. Even if the traveller die on his way from thirst^[27] or hunger, such a deed is sufficient to be looked upon as a splendid example. The daily use of water necessitates inspection.

There are some who use the strainer, but let the insects die within it. Some are desirous of preserving life, but few know how to do it. Some shake (or 'upset') the strainer at the mouth of a well, and do not know the use of the life-preserving vessel. The insects will, no doubt, be killed when they reach the water of a deep well. Others make a small round strainer which only contains one quart or two pints. The silk of which it is made is raw, rough, and thin ; and in using it one does not look for the insects at all, but after hanging it at the side of the jar, others are ordered to do the actual inspection.

Thus one pays no attention to the protection of life, and commits sins from day to day. Handing down such error from teacher to pupil, they yet think they are handing down the Law of the Buddha. It is indeed a grievous and regretful matter! It is proper for every person to keep a vessel for examining water, and every place must be furnished with a life-preserving vessel.

CHAPTER VIII.

USE OF TOOTH-WOODS.

Every morning one must chew tooth-woods, and clean the teeth with them, and rub off the dirt of the tongue as carefully as possible. Only after the hands have been washed and the mouth cleansed is a man fit to make a salutation; if not, both the saluter and the saluted are at fault. Tooth-wood is Dantakâshtha^[28] in Sanskrit—danta, tooth, and kâshtha, a piece of wood. It is made about twelve finger-breadths in length, and even the shortest is not less than eight finger-breadths long^[29]. Its size is like the little finger. Chew softly one of its ends, and clean the teeth with it. If one unavoidably come near a superior, while chewing the wood. one should cover the mouth with the left hand.

Then, breaking the wood, and bending it, rub the tongue. In addition to the tooth-wood, some toothpicks made of iron or copper may be used, or a small stick of bamboo or wood, flat as the surface of the little finger and sharpened at one end, may be used for cleaning the teeth and tongue; one must be careful not to hurt the mouth. When used, the wood must be washed and thrown away.

Whenever a tooth-wood is destroyed or water or saliva is spit out, it should be done after having made three fillips with the fingers, or after having coughed more than twice^[30]; if not, one is faulty in throwing it away. A stick taken out of a large piece of wood, or from a small stem of a tree, or a branch of an elm, or a creeper, if in the forest; if in a field, of the paper mulberry, a peach, a sophora japonica ('Huai'), willow-tree, or anything at disposal, must be prepared sufficiently beforehand^[31]. The freshly-cut sticks (lit. wet ones) must be offered to others, while the dry ones are retained for one's own use.

The younger priest can chew as he likes, but the elders must have the stick hammered at one end and made soft; the best is one which is bitter astringent or pungent in taste, or one which becomes like cotton when chewed. The rough root of the Northern Burr-weed (Hu Tai) is the most excellent; this is otherwise called Tsăng-urh or Tsae-urh, and strikes the root about two inches in the ground. It hardens the teeth, scents the mouth, helps to digest food, or relieves heart-burning. If this kind of tooth-cleaner be used, the smell of the mouth will go off after a fortnight. A disease in the canine teeth or tooth- ache will be cured after a month. Be careful to chew fully and polish the teeth cleanly, and to let all the mouth-water come out; and then to rinse abundantly with water. That is the way. Take in the water from the nose once. This is the means of securing a long life adopted by Bodhisattva Nâgârguna. If this be too hard to put in practice, to drink water is also good. When a man gets used to these practices he is less attacked by sickness. The dirt at the roots of the teeth hardened by time must all be cleaned away. Washed with warm water, the teeth will be freed from the dirt for the whole of life. Tooth- ache is very rare in India owing to their chewing the tooth-wood.

It is wrong to identify the tooth-wood with a willow-branch. Willow- trees are very scarce in India. Though translators have generally used this name, yet, in fact, the Buddha's tooth-wood-tree (for instance) which I have personally seen in the Nâlanda monastery, is not the willow. Now I require no more trustworthy proof from others than this, and my readers need not doubt it. Moreover, we read in the Sanskrit text of the Nirvâna-sûtra thus: 'The time when they were chewing tooth-woods.'

Some in China use small sticks of willow which they chew completely in their mouth without knowing how to rinse the mouth and remove the juice. Sometimes it is held that one can cure a sickness by drinking the juice of the tooth-wood. They become impure, in so doing, contrary to their desire for purification. Though desirous of being released from a disease, they fall into a greater sickness. Are they not already aware of this fact? Any argument would be in vain! It is quite common among the people of the five parts of India to chew the tooth-wood. Even infants of three years old are taught how to do it.

The teaching of the Buddha and the custom of the people correspond on this point, and help each other. I have thus far explained the com- parative merit of the use of the tooth-wood in China and India. Each must judge for himself as to whether he will adopt or reject the custom.

CHAPTER IX.

RULES ABOUT THE RECEPTION AT THE UPAVASATHA-DAY^[32].

CHAPTER X.

NECESSARY FOOD AND CLOTHING.

It may be observed that the earthly body which requires support is only maintained by food and clothing, while the spiritual knowledge that is beyond the bond of births can only be increased by means of the principle of nothingness. If the use of food and clothing be against proper rules, every step will involve some crime; while tranquillisation of the mind without moral regulation will cause more and more perplexity as one goes on meditating.

Therefore those who seek for Final Liberation (Moksha) should use food and clothing according to the noble words of the Buddha, and those who practise the principle of meditation should follow the teaching of former sages in tranquillising their thoughts. Watch over the life here below, which is but a dungeon for the beings that have gone astray, but look eagerly for the shore of Nirvâna, which is the open gate of enlightenment and quietude. The ship of the Law should be manned ready for the sea of suffering, and the lamp of wisdom should be held up during the long period of darkness. There are express laws in the Vinaya text on the observance and neglect that are evident in the light of the regulations of clothing and the rules of eating and drinking, so that even beginners in the study can judge the nature of an offence.

Each individual must himself be responsible for the results of his own practices, whether good or bad, and there is no need of argument here. But there are some who are, as teachers of the students, grossly offending against the Vinaya rules; there are others who say that the usage of the world, even if against the Buddha's discipline, does not involve any guilt. Some understand that the Buddha was born in India, and Indian Bhikshus follow Indian customs, while we ourselves live in China, and, as Chinese monks, we follow Chinese manners. 'How can we,' they argue, 'reject the elegant dress of the Divine Land (China) to receive the peculiar style of garments of India?' For the sake of those who adhere to this view I here roughly state my opinion, founded on the authority of the Vinaya.

The regulations of clothing are the most important for the life of a homeless priest (i. e. Pravragyâ), and I should therefore mention here in detail the style of garments, because these cannot be neglected or curtailed. As to the three garments (collectively called 'kîvara'), the patches are sewn close in the five parts of India, while in China alone they are open and not sewn. I myself have made inquiry as to the custom adopted in the northern countries (beyond India) and found out that patches are sewn close, and never open in all the places where the Vinaya of the four divisions (i. e. Katurnikâya) is practised.

Suppose that a Bhikshu of the West (i. e. India) has obtained a priestly dress of China; he would probably sew the patches together and then wear it.

The Vinaya texts of all the Nikâyas mention that the patches ought to be sewn and fastened.

There are strict rules about the six Requisites and the thirteen Necessaries fully explained in the Vinaya. The following are the six Requisites of a Bhikshu:—

1. The Saṅghâtî, which is translated by the 'double cloak.'

2. The Uttarâsaṅga, which is translated by the upper garment.'

3. The Antarvâsa, which is translated by the inner garment.'

The above three are all called kivara. In the countries of the North these priestly cloaks are generally called kâshâya from their reddish colour. This is not, however, a technical term used in the Vinaya.

4. Pâtra, the bowl.

5. Nishidana, something for sitting or lying on.

6. Parisrâvana, a water-strainer.

A candidate for Ordination should be furnished with a set of the six Requisites^[33].

The following are the thirteen Necessaries^[34]:—

1. Saṅghâti, a double cloak.

2. Uttarâsaṅga, an upper garment.

3. Antarvâsa, an inner garment.

4. Nishidana, a mat for sitting or lying on.

5. (Nivâsana), an under garment.

6. Prati-nivâsana (a second nivâsana).

7. Saṅkakshikâ, a side-covering cloth.

8. Prati-saṅkakshikâ (a second saṅkakshikâ).

9. (Kâya-proñkhana), a towel for wiping the body.

10. (Mukha-proñkhana), a towel for wiping the face.

11. (Kesapratigraha), a piece of cloth used for receiving hair when one shaves.

12. (Kandupratikkhadana), a piece of cloth for covering itches.

13. (Bheshagaparishkarâkivara)*, a cloth kept for defraying the cost of medicine (in case of necessity).

It is expressed in a Gâthâ as follows:—

The three garments, the sitting mat (1, 2, 3, 4).

A couple of petticoats and capes (5, 6, 7, 8).

Towels for the body and face, a shaving-cloth (9, 10, 11).

A cloth for itching and a garment for medicament (12, 13).

These thirteen Necessaries are allowed to any priest to possess—this is the established rule, and one should use these according to the Buddha's teaching. These thirteen, therefore, must not be classed with any other properties of luxury, and these items should be catalogued separately, and be marked, and kept clean and safe.

Whatever you obtain of the thirteen you may keep, but do not trouble to possess all of them. All other luxurious dress not mentioned above should be kept distinct from these necessaries, but such things as woollen gear or carpets may be received and used in compliance with the intention of the givers. Some are wont to speak of the three garments and ten necessaries, but this division is not found in the Indian text, the thirteen having been divided into two groups by some translators on their own authority. They specially mention the three garments, and further allow the ten things to be possessed. But what are the ten things ? They could never exactly point them out, and thus allowed some cunning commentators to take advantage of this omission, and the character Shih (什), meaning ‘ten,' was interpreted by 'miscellaneous' by these commentators, but this cannot be the meaning attributed by the ancient authority in this case.

The cloth for defraying the cost of medicaments allowed to the priest by the Buddha should consist of silk about 20 feet long, or a full piece of it. (One p'i in the text = about 21 1/2 yards in Japan.) A sickness may befall one on a sudden, and a means of procuring medicine hastily sought is difficult to obtain.

I do not know whether or no fasting for curing a disease should be practised in China. But if abstaining from food for a week prove to be fatal, it is because disease does not remain in the body, for while a disease is in the body, fasting even for more days does not cause death. I witnessed some time ago a man who abstained from food for thirty days and recovered again. Why then should we doubt the efficacy of long fasting?

Nor is it good to force a sick person when attacked by a violent fever to drink hot rice-water or to take food, simply noticing that he is ill but not inspecting the cause of his illness. Nay, it is a dangerous thing!

There may be a case of recovery by such treatment, yet it is not after all worth teaching people to follow. Such is strictly prohibited in the science of medicine. Further, in China, people of the present time cat fish and vegetables mostly uncooked; no Indians do this. All vegetables are to be well cooked and to be eaten after mixing with the assafoetida, clarified butter, oil, or any spice.

was yet prince he used to take pleasure in the grove and wanted the owner to give it to him. This was declined. When the prince succeeded to the throne he took possession of this grove by force. The owner was vexed and died of heart-disease. After death he became a snake to take vengeance on the king. In spring the flowers were beautiful; the king went out to the garden together with many female attendants. He fell asleep after having enjoyed the garden walk. All maids went away from the king, charmed by the flowers; there was only one maid who was guarding the king with a sword. There appeared a poisonous snake ready to attack the sleeping king. At this very moment the Kalandaka shrieked noisily, and the maid on guard noticed the snake and cut it asunder. As a reward for the good service to the king, His Majesty dedicated this grove to the memory of the birds and named it "Kalandaka-venu-vana."' For Kalandaka*, see Mahâvagga (S.B.E.) III, 1, 1 note; and for the eight Kaityas in the holy spots, see below, chap. xx, p. 108.

↑ See the I-king (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xvi, p. 373).
↑ See the Lieh-tze, book i, p. 3 a (Faber's Licius, p. 4)*.
↑ See the Kwang-tze (Tâ-sung-shi), S. B. E., vol. xxxix, p. 250.
↑ See the Lao-tze, S. B. E., vol. xxxix, p. 55.
↑ For the tenets of Indian Philosophy, see Prof. Cowell's Sarvadarsana Sangraha under each system, and Colebrooke's Miscellaneous Essays, vol. i.
↑ These are the Bhûtas according to Hiuen Thsang, probably Saivas.
↑ See the Writings of Kwang-tze, S. B. E., vol. xxxix, book ii, sect. II, P. 197.
↑ This is a famous simile in China. When caterpillars have young ones, wasps come and carry them off, and this has given rise to the belief that caterpillars are changed into wasps. 小補韻會 gives this story.
↑ For the twelve Nidânas, see Prof. Oldenberg's Buddha, &c., chap. ii.
↑ These are perfect deed, speech, and thought; knowledge of past, present, and future; Pragnâ, Moksha, calm mind, and the like.
↑ I.e. Those born of the womb (1), of eggs (2), from moisture (3), or miraculously (4). The fourth 'miraculously born' is aupapâduka in the Northern Buddhist texts; this is a misrepresentation of the Pâli Opapâtiko. See Childers, s. v., and Burnouf, Lotus, p. 394. Cf. Vagrakkhedikâ III, S. B. E., vol. xlix, p. 113. The fourth is generally udbhigga, i.e. 'produced from sprouts,' but not so with the Buddhists.
↑ The three stages of existence: (1) the world of passion (kâma); (2) the world of form (rûpa); (3) the world without form (arûpa). See bhavo, Childers.
↑ Here the Nâganadî must mean Nairañganâ (Nilajan), as it is the place where Sâkyamuni attained Buddhahood. Cf. Nâganadî, Lalita-vistara, p. 336.
↑ The nine classes of beings are the subdivisions of the above three stages; each of those three are divided into three.
↑ The six paths of existence are as follows: human beings, Devas, Pretas (spirits), the brute creation (Tiryagyoni), Asuras (demons), and hells.
↑ Âgñâta Kaundinya and his friends first received the teaching of the Buddha. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Suttas, p. 155; Oldenberg, Buddha, p. 130.
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 Âgñâta and Subhadra are here translated 了教 and 妙賢 respectively. The last convert of the Buddha was Subhadra, Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 81; Buddhist Suttas, pp. 103-111. For Âgñâta Kaundinya, see the last note.
↑ The commentator Kâsyapa understands this to mean the nine classes of beings above referred to.
↑ See the Pâtimokkha, S. B. E., vol. xiii, pp. 1-67; Kullavagga IX, 3, 3, S.B.E., vol. xx, p. 309.
↑ This story is told in the Samyuktavastu, book xxi (Nanjio's Catal., No. 1121). A priest named Elapatra was engaged in meditation under a former Buddha Kâsyapa. When he ceased from his meditation, a bough of the ela tree under which he was sitting touched and hurt his head as he moved. He lost his temper and broke off the bough and threw it away. In consequence of this action he was born as a snake.
↑ See below, chap. vii, p. 32, note 3.
↑ Ânanda is translated into Chinese by the 'Delight.' The 'first word of the Buddha at Vaisâlî' refers to the following story. The Buddha spoke to Ânanda concerning the length of his life, at Vaisâlî (Hiuen Thsang, Mémoires, Julien, livre vii, p. 390), and further said to him: 'Those who have obtained the four supernatural powers can live one kalpa or even more if they like.' He repeated this three times, but Ânanda could not understand it as his mind was perplexed by the influence of Mâra the tempter. This is told in the Samyuktavastu, book xxxvi (Nanjio's Catal., No. 1121). Cf. Mahâparinibbâna-sutta III, 4, 5 and 56.
↑ See the Vinaya-sangraha (Nanjio's Catal., No. 1127).
↑ 笏尺 in Chinese.
↑ This may be the Danda-parissâvanam (a double strainer) of Kullavagga V, 13, 3, though the way of straining seems very different.
↑ For the six possessions, see chap, x, p. 54, i.e. the six Requisites.
↑ This story is told in the Samyuktavastu, book vi (Nanjio's Catal., No. 1121). Two Bhikshus from the south started for Srâvastî to see the Buddha. They were thirsty, but the water around them was full of insects. The elder did not drink, and died: he was born in heaven. The younger drank and was censured by the Buddha. Much the same story is told in the Gâtaka Commentary (Rhys Davids' Buddhist Birth Stories, vol. i, p. 278); and in Kullavagga V, 13, 2.
↑ These passages are quoted in Julien's Hiuen Thsang, liv. i, p. 55 note.
↑ I.e. 'aṅgula ' = one twenty-fourth hasta. In Kullavagga V, 31, 2, the length of a tooth-stick is limited to eight finger-breadths.
↑ Kâsyapa, quoting the Samyuktavastu, chap. xiii, says that the Buddha did not allow a tooth-wood or anything to be thrown away without making some noise beforehand for a warning.
↑ The Dantakâshthas were bits of sweet-smelling wood or root, or creeper (Gâtaka I, 80; Mahâvamsa, p. 23), the ends of which were to be masticated as a dentifrice, not rubbed on the teeth, and not 'tooth-brushes' as Childers translates. See Kullavagga V, 31, 1 (S. B. E.), note; Brihat-samhitâ LXXXV; Susruta II, 135.
↑ I. e. the fast-day; it is a day of religious observance and celebration for laymen and priests, and is a weekly festival when laymen see a priest and take upon themselves the Upavasatha-vows, i.e. to keep the eight Sîlas during the day.
↑ The eight Parishkâras (Requisites) in the Pâli texts are the bowl, the three robes, the girdle, a razor, a needle, and a water-strainer (Abhidhânappadîpikâ, 439; the Ten Gâtakas, 120).
↑ Cf. Mahâvyutpatti, 272, where the thirteen are enumerated, though not quite the same. See my additional note at the end.
↑ Four Refuges: (1) Pâmsukûlikâṅga; (2) Paindapâtikâṅga; (3) Vrikshamûlikâṅga; (4) Pûtimûtrabhaishagya. For 1, 2, and 3, see note to the thirteen Dhûtâṅgas below; and for 4, see chap. xxix, pp. 138-139.
↑ Four (proper) Actions are given in the Mûlasarvâstivâdaikasatakarman, chap. i (I-tsing's translation, No. 1131 in Nanjio's Catalogue): (1) Not returning slander for slander; (2) Not returning anger for anger; (3) Not meeting insult with insult; (4) Not returning blow for blow.

↑ Thirteen Dhûtâṅgas are certain ascetic practices, the observance of which is meritorious in a Buddhist priest. These are sometimes enumerated as 'twelve' Dhûtagunas, see Kasawara's Dharmasangraha LXIII.

Pâli.	Chinese Explanation.	Literal Translation of the Chinese.
1. Pamsukûlikaṅgam (Skt. Pâmsukúlika, 11)	糞掃衣	Having the garments made of rags from the dust-heap (pâmsu).
2. Tekîvarikangam (Skt. Traikîvarika, 2)	但衣之人	Becoming a man who wears only (three) garments.
3. Pindapâtikaṅgam (Skt. Paindapâtika, 1)	常乞食	Begging constantly.
4. Sapadânakârikaṅgam (Deest)	次第乞食	Begging from door to door.

↑ This mountain range, Gandhamâdana, is generally translated by 'Fragrant mountain,' sometimes more fully, 'Hsiang-tsui,' i.e. 'Fragrant intoxicating mountain.' It is the region of the Anavatapta lake, from which the four rivers, Sitâ, Gaṇgâ, Sindhu, and Vakshu (Oxus) derive their source. This lake is perhaps the Manasarowar lake (lat. 31° N., long. 81° 3), and Hiuen Thsang's identification with the lake Sirikol (lat. 38° 20 N.) on the plateau of Pamir may be altogether wrong (see Eitel's Handbook, s. v. Anavatapta). So we should take the Gandhamâdana as the high plateau north of the Himalaya, on which the lake Anavatapta lies. I-tsing mentions this mountain again in chap, xxxiv, p. 169.
↑ The Indians seem to have had some impression of Mañgusrî's dwelling in China in I-tsing's time. We meet with this statement again in chap, xxxiv, p. 169.
↑ The reader is reminded that the Chinese Emperor is still called the 'Son of Heaven,' an old term used by Confucius or his direct disciples (b.c. 551-479). Deva-putra is a literal translation of 'Son of Heaven' (Tien-tze). The name, Kîna, which I-tsing is using, is taken from Sanskrit, and probably is the same as Kîna of Indian literature. But how long this name had been used in India or from which name of China it had been taken is uncertain. It was once supposed to have been taken from the Ch'in dynasty (b.c. 222), forming a landmark in Indian chronology, but this supposition was given up by several scholars. Nothing is certain but that Kîna was used as denoting the Chinese in Hiuen Thsang's and I-tsing's time.
↑ In the Brihat-samhitâ LXIX, 11, Mâlava, Bharoach, Surat (Surâshtra), Lâta, and Sindhu are mentioned in one group; compare p. 9, note 1, above.

[1] See the I-king (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xvi, p. 373).

[2] See the Lieh-tze, book i, p. 3 a (Faber's Licius, p. 4)*.

[3] See the Kwang-tze (Tâ-sung-shi), S. B. E., vol. xxxix, p. 250.

[4] See the Lao-tze, S. B. E., vol. xxxix, p. 55.

[5] For the tenets of Indian Philosophy, see Prof. Cowell's Sarvadarsana Sangraha under each system, and Colebrooke's Miscellaneous Essays, vol. i.

[6] These are the Bhûtas according to Hiuen Thsang, probably Saivas.

[7] See the Writings of Kwang-tze, S. B. E., vol. xxxix, book ii, sect. II, P. 197.

[8] This is a famous simile in China. When caterpillars have young ones, wasps come and carry them off, and this has given rise to the belief that caterpillars are changed into wasps. 小補韻會 gives this story.

[9] For the twelve Nidânas, see Prof. Oldenberg's Buddha, &c., chap. ii.

[10] These are perfect deed, speech, and thought; knowledge of past, present, and future; Pragnâ, Moksha, calm mind, and the like.

[11] I.e. Those born of the womb (1), of eggs (2), from moisture (3), or miraculously (4). The fourth 'miraculously born' is aupapâduka in the Northern Buddhist texts; this is a misrepresentation of the Pâli Opapâtiko. See Childers, s. v., and Burnouf, Lotus, p. 394. Cf. Vagrakkhedikâ III, S. B. E., vol. xlix, p. 113. The fourth is generally udbhigga, i.e. 'produced from sprouts,' but not so with the Buddhists.

[12] The three stages of existence: (1) the world of passion (kâma); (2) the world of form (rûpa); (3) the world without form (arûpa). See bhavo, Childers.

[13] Here the Nâganadî must mean Nairañganâ (Nilajan), as it is the place where Sâkyamuni attained Buddhahood. Cf. Nâganadî, Lalita-vistara, p. 336.

[14] The nine classes of beings are the subdivisions of the above three stages; each of those three are divided into three.

[15] The six paths of existence are as follows: human beings, Devas, Pretas (spirits), the brute creation (Tiryagyoni), Asuras (demons), and hells.

[16] Âgñâta Kaundinya and his friends first received the teaching of the Buddha. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Suttas, p. 155; Oldenberg, Buddha, p. 130.

[p4_5-17] 17.0 ^17.1 Âgñâta and Subhadra are here translated 了教 and 妙賢 respectively. The last convert of the Buddha was Subhadra, Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 81; Buddhist Suttas, pp. 103-111. For Âgñâta Kaundinya, see the last note.

[18] The commentator Kâsyapa understands this to mean the nine classes of beings above referred to.

[19] See the Pâtimokkha, S. B. E., vol. xiii, pp. 1-67; Kullavagga IX, 3, 3, S.B.E., vol. xx, p. 309.

[20] This story is told in the Samyuktavastu, book xxi (Nanjio's Catal., No. 1121). A priest named Elapatra was engaged in meditation under a former Buddha Kâsyapa. When he ceased from his meditation, a bough of the ela tree under which he was sitting touched and hurt his head as he moved. He lost his temper and broke off the bough and threw it away. In consequence of this action he was born as a snake.

[21] See below, chap. vii, p. 32, note 3.

[22] Ânanda is translated into Chinese by the 'Delight.' The 'first word of the Buddha at Vaisâlî' refers to the following story. The Buddha spoke to Ânanda concerning the length of his life, at Vaisâlî (Hiuen Thsang, Mémoires, Julien, livre vii, p. 390), and further said to him: 'Those who have obtained the four supernatural powers can live one kalpa or even more if they like.' He repeated this three times, but Ânanda could not understand it as his mind was perplexed by the influence of Mâra the tempter. This is told in the Samyuktavastu, book xxxvi (Nanjio's Catal., No. 1121). Cf. Mahâparinibbâna-sutta III, 4, 5 and 56.

[24] See the Vinaya-sangraha (Nanjio's Catal., No. 1127).

[25] 笏尺 in Chinese.

[26] This may be the Danda-parissâvanam (a double strainer) of Kullavagga V, 13, 3, though the way of straining seems very different.

[27] For the six possessions, see chap, x, p. 54, i.e. the six Requisites.

[p32_3-28] This story is told in the Samyuktavastu, book vi (Nanjio's Catal., No. 1121). Two Bhikshus from the south started for Srâvastî to see the Buddha. They were thirsty, but the water around them was full of insects. The elder did not drink, and died: he was born in heaven. The younger drank and was censured by the Buddha. Much the same story is told in the Gâtaka Commentary (Rhys Davids' Buddhist Birth Stories, vol. i, p. 278); and in Kullavagga V, 13, 2.

[29] These passages are quoted in Julien's Hiuen Thsang, liv. i, p. 55 note.

[30] I.e. 'aṅgula ' = one twenty-fourth hasta. In Kullavagga V, 31, 2, the length of a tooth-stick is limited to eight finger-breadths.

[31] Kâsyapa, quoting the Samyuktavastu, chap. xiii, says that the Buddha did not allow a tooth-wood or anything to be thrown away without making some noise beforehand for a warning.

[32] The Dantakâshthas were bits of sweet-smelling wood or root, or creeper (Gâtaka I, 80; Mahâvamsa, p. 23), the ends of which were to be masticated as a dentifrice, not rubbed on the teeth, and not 'tooth-brushes' as Childers translates. See Kullavagga V, 31, 1 (S. B. E.), note; Brihat-samhitâ LXXXV; Susruta II, 135.

[33] I. e. the fast-day; it is a day of religious observance and celebration for laymen and priests, and is a weekly festival when laymen see a priest and take upon themselves the Upavasatha-vows, i.e. to keep the eight Sîlas during the day.

[34] The eight Parishkâras (Requisites) in the Pâli texts are the bowl, the three robes, the girdle, a razor, a needle, and a water-strainer (Abhidhânappadîpikâ, 439; the Ten Gâtakas, 120).

[35] Cf. Mahâvyutpatti, 272, where the thirteen are enumerated, though not quite the same. See my additional note at the end.

[36] Four Refuges: (1) Pâmsukûlikâṅga; (2) Paindapâtikâṅga; (3) Vrikshamûlikâṅga; (4) Pûtimûtrabhaishagya. For 1, 2, and 3, see note to the thirteen Dhûtâṅgas below; and for 4, see chap. xxix, pp. 138-139.

[37] Four (proper) Actions are given in the Mûlasarvâstivâdaikasatakarman, chap. i (I-tsing's translation, No. 1131 in Nanjio's Catalogue): (1) Not returning slander for slander; (2) Not returning anger for anger; (3) Not meeting insult with insult; (4) Not returning blow for blow.

[p56_3-38] Thirteen Dhûtâṅgas are certain ascetic practices, the observance of which is meritorious in a Buddhist priest. These are sometimes enumerated as 'twelve' Dhûtagunas, see Kasawara's Dharmasangraha LXIII.

Pâli. Chinese Explanation. Literal Translation of the Chinese.

1. Pamsukûlikaṅgam (Skt. Pâmsukúlika, 11) 糞掃衣 Having the garments made of rags from the dust-heap (pâmsu).

2. Tekîvarikangam (Skt. Traikîvarika, 2) 但衣之人 Becoming a man who wears only (three) garments.

3. Pindapâtikaṅgam (Skt. Paindapâtika, 1) 常乞食 Begging constantly.

4. Sapadânakârikaṅgam (Deest) 次第乞食 Begging from door to door.

[39] This mountain range, Gandhamâdana, is generally translated by 'Fragrant mountain,' sometimes more fully, 'Hsiang-tsui,' i.e. 'Fragrant intoxicating mountain.' It is the region of the Anavatapta lake, from which the four rivers, Sitâ, Gaṇgâ, Sindhu, and Vakshu (Oxus) derive their source. This lake is perhaps the Manasarowar lake (lat. 31° N., long. 81° 3), and Hiuen Thsang's identification with the lake Sirikol (lat. 38° 20 N.) on the plateau of Pamir may be altogether wrong (see Eitel's Handbook, s. v. Anavatapta). So we should take the Gandhamâdana as the high plateau north of the Himalaya, on which the lake Anavatapta lies. I-tsing mentions this mountain again in chap, xxxiv, p. 169.

[40] The Indians seem to have had some impression of Mañgusrî's dwelling in China in I-tsing's time. We meet with this statement again in chap, xxxiv, p. 169.

[p206-41] The reader is reminded that the Chinese Emperor is still called the 'Son of Heaven,' an old term used by Confucius or his direct disciples (b.c. 551-479). Deva-putra is a literal translation of 'Son of Heaven' (Tien-tze). The name, Kîna, which I-tsing is using, is taken from Sanskrit, and probably is the same as Kîna of Indian literature. But how long this name had been used in India or from which name of China it had been taken is uncertain. It was once supposed to have been taken from the Ch'in dynasty (b.c. 222), forming a landmark in Indian chronology, but this supposition was given up by several scholars. Nothing is certain but that Kîna was used as denoting the Chinese in Hiuen Thsang's and I-tsing's time.

[42] In the Brihat-samhitâ LXIX, 11, Mâlava, Bharoach, Surat (Surâshtra), Lâta, and Sindhu are mentioned in one group; compare p. 9, note 1, above.

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