Collier's Cyclopedia of Commercial and Social Information/Grammar

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Collier's Cyclopedia of Commercial and Social Information (1882)
by Nugent Robinson

Grammar

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3596789Collier's Cyclopedia of Commercial and Social Information — Grammar1882Nugent Robinson

RAMMAR is the science of language, and its principal use is to enable those who study it to express their thoughts with correctness and propriety, so as to be understood by those whom they address.

It must always be remembered that grammars can only define, but cannot determine, the correct use of language. This depends, in every instance, upon the forms of thought and meaning to be conveyed; and in all languages was settled and employed long before the studies of grammarians commenced. And at this very time it may be seen how completely powerless are all the grammatical treatises on our own tongue, now existing, to prevent such changes as the disuse of the subjunctive mood of verbs, etc., from being made in the forms of the English language; by which the power of expressing some finer shades of meaning must be greatly circumscribed, if not entirely lost.

The best method, therefore, to be pursued by any one who desires to become practically and thoroughly acquainted with his mother-tongue, is carefully to read some select works of our best authors, in the manner now to be described, with the help of such a compendious grammar as that contained in the following pages. This method, by the peculiar interest it excites, relieves the study of all drudgery; and at the same time furnishes one of the most satisfactory means of intellectual training, and an available introduction to the study of any other language to which the attention may afterward be directed.

2. The following paragraphs form the commencement of Lord Bacon’s Essay,

"OF STUDIES.

"I. Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability.

"II. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of business.

"III. For expert men can execute and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels and the plots, and marshaling of affairs, come best from those that are learned.

"IV. To-spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament is affectation; to make judgment only by their rules is the humor of a scholar.

"V. They perfect nature, and are perfected by: experience; for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning by study, and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience.

"VI. Crafty men contemn studies; simple men admire them; and wise men use them, for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them and above them, won by observation.

"VII. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted ; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider,"

3. In the first paragraph we find something spoken of, "studies," and something said about them, viz., that they "serve" for certain purposes, as "for delight," "ornament," and "ability." The several parts may be arranged thus:

Studies....Serve.... $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	for delight,
	for ornament
	and
	for ability.

They are thus distinguished according to their offices in the paragraph, which can readily be noticed, when thus arranged, without the employment of any names for them.

4. The paragraph numbered (2) may be arranged in this manner:—

Their chief use... $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	for delight....is.... $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	privateness
		and
		retiring;
	for ornament....is....in discourse;
	for ability....is....in the $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	judgment	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	of business
		and
		disposition

Here the three purposes mentioned in the former paragraph are the things spoken of; and certain things are said about each of them, though not exactly in the same manner as those purposes were said to be answered by "studies,” above. These two parts, therefore—something spoken of, and something said about it—we may note as essential to a complete and intelligible sentence of the kind before us; and we may adopt the names given to them by grammarians—subject and predicate; which, signifying precisely what has just been said,require no further explanation.

5. Paragraph (3) we arrange thus:

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Both subjects and predicates here are somewhat complex. "Expert" is prefixed to "men;" "general" to "counsels;" and to "the plots and marshalling" are appended the words "of affairs;" just as in paragraph (2) "chief" was prefixed to "use," and "for delight, for ornament, and for ability" added to the same word, with the evident intention of circumscribing and defining it. And with a similar intention, the meaning of "can execute and judge of" is carried out and completed by "particulars" and "one by one;" and that of the latter predicate, "can judge of," is further limited by the word "perhaps" being attached to it. In the second part of the paragraph, also, "from those that are learned," and "best," are appended to the predicate "come." And so in paragraph (1), "for delight, for ornament, and for ability," follow the word "serve;" and in paragraph (2), after "is," comes "in privateness and retiring, in discourse," etc.

It is evident that these appended words and phrases, although they are of the highest moment to the full and precise expression of the thoughts, when regard is had to the structure of the sentences alone, are not essential, but subordinate parts thereof. And they have accordingly received from grammarians distinct names; those employed to describe and define subjects being designated attributives; and those employed with predicates, for the purpose of modifying and supplementing their meaning—objects; which terms we will use for the future, to avoid trouble and confusion.

6. But we may observe further, that the attributives, which have occurred in these paragraphs, are of two kinds, One kind (like the subjects) consists of names of things, called by grammarians nouns; as "delight," "ornament," "ability," "business," "affairs;" and these have before them the little words "of" and "for," which are known as prepositions, to attach them to the subjects. The other kind consists of epithets merely, and not of names, as "chief," "expert," "general;" and they are called adjectives.

In paragraph (3) we find another word, "the," used very much in the same way as adjectives are used; except that its sole force is to point to the subject particularly spoken of; whence it has been named the demonstrative. And in paragraph (2) there is a word, "their," in form closely resembling it; but (in this instance) meaning, "of studies." It is plainly an adjective; but it is also called a pronoun, from its being thus used instead of a noun.

One other word, "and," which occurs in the subjects of these paragraphs, requires a passing glance. Its use is obvious; it connects certain parts of sentences together, so as to save much repetition, and the inconveniences that must result from it, and it is designated a conjunction.

7. Before we speak of the different kinds of objective words and phrases which we meet with in these paragraphs, some further notice should be taken of the predicates. In paragraph (1), and in the second example in paragraph (3), they are perfectly simple, consisting of the words "serve" and "come" alone words which convey assertions, and speak of some sort of action, and are called verbs. "Can execute and judge of" (observe the use of the conjunction) are also verbs, but the latter has a preposition attached to it, to bring it into a particular relation with the objects that follow; and to both of them is prefixed the word "can," which alters their force from the assertion of action to the assertion of the mere capability of it. In paragraph (2), again, we have for predicates, "in privateness and retiring," in "discourse," etc..,—which are plainly nouns with prepositions; and the quality of predicates is given 'to them by the employment of the word "is" with each, which changes them from attributives into assertions. "Is" must consequently be called a verb, although it only expresses being and not action. The complex character of these predicates must be observed; and the conjunctions, the demonstrative, and the addition of the attributive, "of business," to one of them (which happens because oye are actually nouns) carefully noted.

8. Turning now to the objects, we see in paragraph (1) that they indicate the purpose or effect of the action expressed by the verb; and, in this example, are nouns attached to the verb by the help of prepositions,—"for delight," "for ornament," etc. In paragraph(3) the first object, "particulars," which i is also a noun, indicates that on which the action represented by the verbs "execute and judge of," takes effect. Observe, also, that just as in the words "studies," "plots," and "affairs," the fact that more than one of the kind is meant, is shown by the addition of the letter "s" to the ordinary word; whilst in the instance of "men," the same fact is indicated by the change of the vowel sound from "a" in man.

The second object, "one by one," is of a different kind. It indicates the manner of execution and judgment; and consists of a word signifying a number, called a numeral, repeated, with a preposition. "Perhaps," which is the third object, belongs to the predicate, "judge of," only; and is inserted for the purpose of lessening the strength of the assertion conveyed by the predicate. Words like it are called by grammarians adverbs. The second object in the other example contained in this paragraph, "best," is of the same class of words; but, instead of lessening the force of the predicate, it is employed to intensify it.

9. "From those that are learned," is a very remarkable kind of object; for it contains a complete sentence in itself. The actual object is "those," attached to the predicate by the reposition "from;" and indicating the source and origin of the action expressed by the verb. "Those" is not, however, the name of anything; but it stands here for "those men;" and thus partakes of the nature of pronouns, White it also serves demonstratively to point out the specific description of men spoken of. In consequence of its being in part a pronoun, it can have an attributive attached to it, and the sentence, "that are learned," serves as an attributive, to define and describe the "men" particularly intended.

The predicate of this sentence, "are learned," is of the same kind as those in paragraph (2), only an adjective takes the place of the nouns there used. The subject is neither a name nor an epithet, but a kind of pronoun, since it stands for "men," and plainly for the same men as "those" did; and, from its having relation thus to a noun already known, is called a relative pronoun, Sentences used in this manner are called accessory sentences, to mark their subordinate character, and their connection with the sentences of which they form parts, distinguished as principal sentences.

Only two words remain to be spoken of, "For," at the commencement of this paragraph, shows its connection in meaning with the preceding paragraph; or, more correctly, with the last sentence in it; for which it assigns a reason. "But," on the other hand, separates the two parts of this paragraph, by way of contrast; so that it is manifest that not the first, but the second part of it, contains the reason for the assertion made in the foregoing paragraph. Both words are called conjunctions, from their thus serving to connect otherwise disjoined and independent sentences together; yet it is evident that they are not conjunctions of the same nature as "and."

10. Paragraph (4) contains the principal sentences:

To spend	. . .	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	too much time in studies	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	. . . is . . . sloth;
to use	. . .	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	them for ornament, too much	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	. . . is . . . affection;
to make	. . .	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	judgment by their rules only	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	. . . is . . . the humour of a scholar

Of these predicates, since they so nearly resemble those of paragraph (2), we only need to observe, that the nouns are used without prepositions to modify their meaning ; and the word "a" (before "scholar"), contracted from "an," is a numeral, and merely means "one," but in what we may call a somewhat general way.

The remarkable character of these sentences lies in the subjects, which, as we can perceive at the first glance, are verbs with objects,—and yet are not accessory sentences, since no assertions are made. This form of the verb, with the preposition "to" prefixed, differs entirely from the forms we have seen employed in the predicates. Grammarians distinguish all verbs used in this last-named way, as being in the indicative mood; and those with "to" before them as being in the infinitive mood. They are, in fact, as we see, used like nouns, only, being verbs, instead of attributives to define them, they have objects to complete them.

11. Some of these objects are in forms which we have already noticed; "time" and "judgment" are like "particulars" 7 paragraph (3), the direct objects of the action of the verbs they follow; "in studies" represents, by a very natural metaphor, that of place, the peculiar circumstances of the action spoken of; "for ornament" precisely resembles the "for delight," &c., of paragraph (1); but the object, "by their rules," expresses the means by which the action of the verb is accomplished. "Them," we see, is a pronoun, as it stands for the word "studies;" and it is the direct object of the verb "use;" it is one of the very few words in our language which have two forms, one employed when it is a subject, "they," and another when it is an object, as we find it here, "them." Here are also two objects belonging to the class of words called adverbs, "much" and "only," both of them expressive of the manner in which the action of the verbs they follow is performed; and the first of them has the adverb "too" prefixed, for the purpose of intensifying the meaning of "much."

The first object has the words "too much" prefixed, as an attribute;"too" being here, as in the instance last noted, an adverb expressive of intensity; but "much," what is termed an indefinite numeral, expressing quantity merely in a general way. There is another of the series with an attributive prefixed, "their rules;" but of this we have spoken in connexion with paragraph (2).

12. We find the next paragraph (5) rather complex, as this arrangement of it shows:

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In the first part of this paragraph we find the same pronoun used as a subject, which we have just seen in its objective form. Grammarians call these different forms cases; and that now before us, the nominative or subjective case; that in the last paragraph, the accusative or Objective case.

13. The first predicate and object are in the same form as several we have seen above; but the second predicate is quite new to us. It signifies that "experience perfects studies," just as "they perfect nature;" but we find what should be the subject following the predicate, and the real object in the place appropriated to the subject; the form of the predicate, too, is changed, and a preposition is inserted between it and the word "experience." We must admit, however, that the passage would lose immensely in compactness, vivacity, and force if it were written thus: "Tiky perfect nature, and experience perfects them; so that the reason for using this peculiar form is manifest.

It is distinguished by grammarians thus: When the agent of the verb is the subject, the verbal form employed is called active; but when the immediate object of the verb is the agent, the form employed is called passive. And in our tongue all passive forms, called passive. And in our tongue all passive forms, just as in this instance, consist of that form of the verb which grammarians call the perfect participle—a form resembling an adjective in this, that it can be used as an attributive; but also partaking of the nature of a verb, inasmuch as the notion it conveys is modified so as to express the completeness of the action. The object following this verb here expresses the means by which what is spoken of the subject is effected; as we have seen before. How the two sentences are combined by the conjunction, so that one subject serves for both, we need not more particularly point out.

14. "For," prefixed to the second part of the paragraph introduces two reasons for the last assertion respecting the influence of "experience" upon "studies;" as was seen in paragraph (3). Of the first reason, we—only to say, that the real predicate of the sentence is "like," to which the words, "natural plants," are added as an object; and that in the accessory sentence, added ae a second attributive to "plants," whilst "pruning" is the immediate object of the verb "need;" "by study" is an object annexed to "pruning." For this last word is another of the participles, properly the imperfect one, which, like the verb, at times requires some attempering object, as we see here.

In the second reason, we must notice, first, an attributive attached to the subject, which we have not met with before,—"themselves." It is undoubtedly a pronoun, and it is here used as a most emphatic demonstrative. The objective form of one part of it, "them," does not concern us here. Next, we notice the predicate, which is in a form we have pease petore seen; but which is only equivalent to the word "give," alone, except that it is more empathetic. Grammarians call these words, "do," "can," "are," &c., when employed as in this case auxiliary, or helping verbs. The first and second objects to this sentence do not require particular notice; and in the third, "too much at large," it is only needful to observe the use of an adjective preceded by a preposition, and having an adverbial phrase, which we have met with, before it, to express the manner of the action.

Of the third object, which is an accessory sentence, more is to be said. It is annexed w the principal sentence by means of a conjunction, "except," which implies some limitation to the meaning of the predicate and the preceding objects; but the form of its own predicate is different from any we have yet seen. Comparing it with the second predicate in this paragraph, "are perfected," we find that it is a passive form; but the employment of "be" instead of "are," shows that the limitation hinges upon the effect of "experience" upon the "studies" spoken of. The forms of verbs which are thus used, to express contingency, have been called by grammarians the subjunctive mood; they are far more rarely used now than they once were, and have, indeed, almost entirely disappeared from our spoken language.

15. Paragraph (6) affords us an opportunity of remarking some other facts in English Grammar:

crafty men .. Contemn .. studies;
simple men .. admire .. them;
for .. they ........ teach ... $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	their own use;
	not;
but . that ........ is .. a wisdom $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$		without them,
		and
		above them,
		won by observation

In the first three sentences there is nothing new to observe, except the use of the conjunction "and," without any abbreviation or condensation; it here serves only to combine all three assertions together, so that the reasons assigned in the remainder of the paragraph are seen to apply equally to all. We may, however, notice the fact, that the association of the several attributives with their objects is effected entirely by: juxtaposition; there being nothing in the forms of the words specially to indicate their relation to the words they belong to. But the relation of the predicates to their subjects is shown by the agreement of their forms in one essential partictilar, called by grammarians number. Thus in paragraph. (2) the noun "use," which is the subject, expresses but one thing; and the form of the verb, "is," applies to no more than one; whilst in paragraph (5), "they" (which is equivalent to "studies") and "abilities," referring to more things than one, have the form of the verb "are," which also applies to more than one, in the predicates following them. And similarly here, the subjects being in the plural number, "men," the verbs in the predicates are also in the plural, "contemn," "admire," "use."

In like manner the place occupied by the word. "studies," shows it to be the object of the verb "contemn;" but the relation of the objects to the predicates in the other two sentences is indicated not only by their position, but (as we have before observed) also, and more certainly, by the form employed, "them."

16. Little needs to be said respecting the first sentence, which is introduced by the conjunction "for," most of its forms being familiar; but we may note the use of the word "own," an adjective rendering the pronoun, "their," emphatic. In the last sentence the subject is not a relative, but a demonstrative pronoun, and its reference to the "use" of "studies" is shown by the order of the words, or, as the grammarians say, by the construction. Besides this, only the attributives to the predicate, which is here a noun, require remark; for two of them, "without them, and above them," are pronouns attached by prepositions, exactly as we have seen nouns attached, in paragraphs (2), (3), and (4), but showing their subordinate position to the subject, by being in the objective or accusative case; and the third, "won by observation," is a participle with an object expressive of means.

This participle is not formed in the same way as those were formed which we have before met with. "Perfect-ed" and "bound-ed" have been made by the addition of the final syllable; but "won" is formed by the change of the vowel in the verb "win."

17. The last paragraph (7) we thus arrange:

Read ...... $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	not ...... to $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	Contradict
		and
		Confute;
	nor ...... to $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	believe
		and
		take for granted;
	nor ...... to find $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	talk
		and
		discourse;
	but ...... to $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	weigh
		and
		consider;

Here we have a predicate "read," and a considerable number of objects, but there is no subject; yet the sense is complete. There is, however, no assertion made by the verb; on the contrary, it conveys a command; and the subject, if expressed, would not occupy the customary place to the left of the predicate, but would come between it and the objects. Grammarians distinguish the forms of verbs which signify commands as the imperative mood. The four principal groups of objects belong to one and the same class, that which expresses the purpose or design of the action; and they are so combined by the conjunctions, "nor" and "but," as to enable a single verb to act as predicate to them all. The conjunction, "nor," serves to give to the second and third groups the same negative character that is imparted to the first by the negative object "not;" and the fourth is contrasted with all the preceding groups, as stating the design that should be kept in view in reading, by the use of "but."

In the expression, "to take for granted," we have a participle attached to a verb by means of a preposition, as an object needful to complete it; and the next group shows two nouns, "talk and discourse," combined by the conjunction "and," so as to spare the repetition of the verb "to find," to which they both serve as "objects."

18. From this illustration, extending only to seven paragraphs—and those neither long nor very greatly complicated—may be seen, both what English grammar actually is, and what a large and clear knowledge of its facts and laws may be attained by the plan of study which we have recommended. It may also be seen how completely language is the product and representation of the thought or meaning of those who speak or write; and how subordinate is the office of the grammarian—limited, in fact, to the elucidation and interpretation of the forms and principles of language, by the most general laws and forms of thought. For not only cannot possibly frame his declensions and conjugations, his concords and governments, so as to provide a place for every combination and inflexion and mode of giving expression to the infinitely diversified shade of meaning, even in the language of common life.

19. The following example will show how easy it is to analyze and arrange the most complicated paragraphs, so as to exhibit, without the employment of a single technical term, every fact both of Etymology and Syntax contained in it. The passage is from Locke's "Essay concerning Human Understanding." Book iv., chap. 1., § 7.

"God, having designed man for a sociable creature, made. him not only with an inclination, and under a necessity, to have fellowship with those of his own kind, but furnished him also with language; which was to be the great instrument and common tie of society."

God .. $\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	not only made .......	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	him with an inclination and under a necessity	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	to have	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	fellowship with those of his own kind
	but also	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	having designed	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	man for a sociable creature,
	furnished ...	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	him with language, ... which ... was to be ... the			$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	instruments and common tie	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	of society