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state; (2) the differentiated, polarized, or organic state. Or, from another point of view, (i) the chaotic state ; (2) the state of coordination ; (3) the state of subordination or of hierarchization. It is rarely the case that one of the elements which constitutes a social function does not predominate over others. So, another order of change is : (i) Absorption of one of the elements by another; (2) equilibrium of the elements; (3) predominance of the contrary element. The functions of society correspond to the physiological functions of an animal. The functions of nutrition and reproduction per- tain not to political but to economic government. Those of the relations of society correspond to the cerebral operations. The social functions are the legislative, the judicial and the administrative. The one who is best qualified to discharge these is not the savant : for his science is wholly theoretical, and he loses himself in his specula- tions. Nor the practical man ; for his interests may conflict with the general interest, and he is incapable of taking the widest view. Under universal suffrage, the most illiterate is the equal of the most intelligent. But the most illiterate is not able to frame wise laws in all their details, corresponding to the point of evolution. This is the role not of interest, nor of capacity, but of action. During long periods, it is the force of movement which rules. The absence of will, of intention, has been most disas- trous in sociology. Sociology is the reflex of psychology, the social functions cor- responding to the cerebral functions. The cerebral functions of sensibility, intelligence, and will correspond to the social functions of good sense, science and action. Collec- tive groups in the order of complexity are commune, province, state, confederated states, allied states, universal federation. Individual groups in the same order are individuals, family, forced groups, voluntary groups. A synthesis will follow this analysis of the social structure. RAOUL DE LA GRASSERIE. "De la structure polit- ique de la socie'te'," Revue Internationale de Sociologie, November, 1896. F.
The Political Structure of Society. (Part II). I. Political structure of the collec- tive society. It is not alone society as a whole which can have a social structure but also the individual. Race characteristics influence the choice between different modes of government. With certain peoples, e. g., Germans, the independence of character is strongly marked. In nations of such a temperament, the family life is strongly devel- oped. Besides the race influence there is the influence of climate, soil, religion, etc.
The collective government alone constitutes the society of the state apart from the individual. The distinct existence of this society has been questioned, that is, it is held that it is simply a collection of individuals. But society is distinct from the indi- viduals which compose it, as the human individual is something more than the atoms and molecules of which he is composed.
The bond of union between the different concentric societies is the federal bond, the absence of which means warfare.
A. The State, (a) The direct exercise of political functions by the assembly. But direct government does not exist solely where the power is exercised by the whole nation by virtue of the sovereignty of the people, but also under an absolute monarchy. (b) Indirect exercise of political functions. This is more complex in that it establishes an equilibrium and reaches a differentiation which did not before exist. The govern- mental function may be divided into legislative, judicial, and executive, (c) The com- bination of direct and indirect government. This secures the most perfect system ; for all interests and capacities thus best find their satisfaction, (d) The evolution to this form of government. The direct government approaches most nearly the purely indi- vidualistic form. Then comes the transition to the social state in which the functions are differentiated.
B. Submultiples of the State, (a) The province or department is a reduction of the state, and as such has the same organs, (b} The commune is an inferior unit and governs through the three functions.
C. The Multiples of the State, (a) Confederation, (b) Alliance, (c) Universal federation.
D. The Federal Bond.
II. Social Structure of Individual Government. A. Absence of Groups, (a) The direct, individualistic government has as its national function solely the declaration of
