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626 Presidential Reconstruction. [i865 number of classes from the privilege of taking the oath, the most significant being that comprising all persons owning property worth over $20,000. By this provision Johnson undoubtedly meant to shut out the great planters and former slaveholders from sharing in the work of reconstruction. It was contrary to the political system of the United States that a Congress elected in the autumn of 1864 should, unless specially sum- moned by the President, meet until December, 1865. Johnson therefore had a free hand in the process which he now put in operation. For each of the conquered States, except those already reconstructed by Lincoln, he appointed in the early summer of 1865 a provisional governor, with instructions to aid in the formation of a new State government, and to insist on the performance of certain acts which would, in Johnson's opinion, safeguard the results of the war. The new State governments must abolish slavery, repudiate debt incurred in aid of the rebellion, and ratify the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. This done, they were to be regarded as restored to their place in the Union. The Southern people, or such of them as were not excluded by Johnson's proclamation, were thus given the opportunity to resume civil government; and it rested with them to use it wisely or unwisely. On the whole, the President's offer met with a favourable response; the oaths were willingly taken; and an intention was manifested to make the best of things. Here and there excluded leaders hung back sullenly, or reckless young men defied Johnson's governors ; but in every State there were found enough conservative men, former Whigs or Unionists, to carry through the programme urged by the eager President. Every State amended its Constitution so as to abolish slavery; most of them repudiated the Confederate debt; and all but two, Mississippi and Texas, ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. All but Texas had elected State officials by December, 1865 ; and, when Texas finally took action, Johnson felt warranted in proclaiming officially the end of the Rebellion. The proclamation was dated April 6, 1866. The burden laid on the new governments was a heavy one ; but they faced the situation with characteristic energy. Every State created Courts and imposed taxes. Every State passed laws relieving bankrupts and executors ; all but two stayed executions for debt ; and all but four provided relief for maimed and indigent Confederate soldiers. But most striking of all was the manner in which the new governments attempted to deal with the negro problem, now staring them in the face. Without going into detail, it may be said that their clear purpose was to keep the freedmen as a subordinate class, personally free but subject to strict legal control, special limitations, and peculiar penalties. Their status was defined in such a way as to enable them to sue and be sued, and to bear testimony in suits where a negro was a party ; but intermarriage