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CROQUET 206 CROSS them would have succeeded had it not been for these extreme vacua which Mr. Crookes has taught us to manage." It is stated that he was the first to apply photography to the investigation of the solar spectrum. He is the author of Select Methods in Chemical Analysis," "Manufacture of Beet-root Sugar in England," "Handbook of Dyeing and Calico-Printing," "Manual of Dyeing and Tissue-Printing," etc. He is also joint author of the English adaptation of Kerl's "Treatise on Metallurgy." He has edited the last three editions of Mitchell's "Manual of Practical Assay- ing," and has translated into English and edited Reimann's "Aniline and its Derivatives," Wagner's "Chemical Tech- nology," Auerbach's "Anthracen and its Derivatives," and Ville's "Artificial Ma- nures." He is an authority on sanitary questions, especially the disposal of town-sewage. In 1907 he shared the Nobel prize for Chemistry with E. Buch- iier, and in 1910 was awarded the Order of Merit. He died on April 4, 1919. CBOQITET, to the most scientific form of which the name ROQUE is given, is an open-air game played with balls, mallets, and arches, either upon a closely mowed lawn or a specially prepared court. The game is substantially a revival of the old game of Pall Mall, which gave its name to the well known London street. France introduced this game into Ireland and then into England early in the 17th cen- tury, and during the 18th century it was largely neglected, but came again into favor about 1850 and was later super- seded in popularity by tennis. CROSBY, ERNEST HOWARD, Amer- ican author; born at New York, Nov. 4, 1856; son of Howard Crosby. He was educated at the University of New York, and practiced law in New York from 1878-1889. He was appointed by Presi- dent Harrison in 1889 Judge of the In- ternational Court at Alexandria, Egypt, where he remained till 1894. On his re- turn he visited Count Tolstoy, and adopted that writer's ideas in regard to social reform. He was the first Presi- dent of the Social Reform Club, and Chairman of the New York Friends of Russian Freedom. He published : "Plain Talk in Psalm and Parable" (1899) ; "Captain Jinks, Hero" (1902) ; "Swords and Ploughshares" (1902) ; "Tolstoy and his Message"; and "William Lloyd Garrison" (1905). He died in 1906. CROSIER, the pastoral staff of an archbishop, surmounted by a cross; or of a bishop or abbot, terminating in a curve or crook. It is generally elabo- rately carved and ornamented with jewels, etc. CROSMAN, HENRIETTA, an Ameri- can actress. Born in West Virginia in 1870, she first went on the stage when nineteen years of age, playing in Camp- bell's "White Slave." From 1892-1894 she was Charles Frohman's leading lady. In 1900 she began her career as a star in a play entitled "One of Our Girls." In the same year she brought out "Mis- tress Nell" at the Bijou Theatre in Nev/ York. In 1911 she took the role of Jess Loraine in the play "The Real Thing," playing later many other important roles in New York and in other parts of the United States. CROSS, a gibbet, consisting of two pieces of timber placed across each other in a variety of forms. The cross was used as a very general instrument of punishment from the earliest times. Among the Syrians, Jews, Egyptians, Persians, and especially the Carthagin- ians, it appears to have been the usual military punishment; but in no part of the ancient world was this punishment so generally resorted to as in the Roman empire, where it was regarded as the most infamous of deaths, and, except in cases of sedition, was inflicted only on slaves or the vilest malefactors. By the Jewish law, it was ordained that the body of the culprit should be removed from the cross on the day of his execution ; but the Romans frequently allowed it to hang till it dropped piecemeal to the ground. By the death of Christ, the cross, from being an object of horror, became the symbol of the Christian world, and, from respect for this symbol, Constantine abolished the punishment of crucifixion throughout the Roman world. The cross is still regarded with the utmost venera- tion by the Roman Catholic Church, in which certain festivals are observed in memory of circumstances connected with the cross. The cross on which our Lord suffered is commonly considered to have been the crux capitata or Latin cross, but the cross with equal limbs ( + ) or Greek cross, has been the model followed in the architecture of Eastern churches. The large cross over the entrance to the chan- cel of a church was called the Rood or Holy Rood. Monumental crosses were and are still often raised in Catholic countries, to mark a boundary, the entrance of a sanctuary, or as record of some event. CROSS, MARY ANN EVANS. See Eliot, George. CROSS, WILBUR LUCIUS, an Amer- ican educator and editor, born in Mans- field, Conn., in 1862. He graduated from Yale in 1885 and took post-graduate