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GEOGBAPHICAL SOCIETIES 283 GEOGRAPHY of the Mammifers"; "Ideas of Natural Philosophy" (1838). He died in Paris, June 19, 1844. GEOGBAPHICAL SOCIETIES, as- sociations formed with the view of ob- taining and disseminating geographical knowledge. In point of seniority the first of these associations is the Geographical Society of Paris, founded in 1821, whose magazine, the "Bulletin of the Geo- graphical Society," began in 1822. The Prussian Geographical Society held its first sittings in Berlin in 1828, and pub- lishes a yearly "Journal." The Royal Geographical Society, established in Lon- don in 1830, has a capital of over £25,- 000, and devotes large sums annually to aid the cause of geographical research, or as rewards and recognition of services rendered to the science. Its proceedings are published monthly. The Royal Scot- tish Geographical Society, founded in 1844, also publishes a monthly magazine. The Russian Geographical Society, founded at St. Petersburg in 1845, has greatly extended our knowledge of Asia, and especially Asiatic Russia. The American Geographical Society was founded at New York in 1852. The National Geographic Society was founded in 1888. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, AMER- ICAN, a society organized in 1852 for the purpose of investigating and dissemi- nating geographical knowledge. The headquarters of the society are located in New York City and contain a valu- able library of over 50,000 volumes. The executive council of the society awards yearly two gold medals, the CoUum and the Daly medals, named respectively after their founders. The societjr publishes a monthly bulletin. Its collections and library are open for free reference and inspection to the public. The membership of the society is about 4,000. GEOGRAPHIC NAMES, UNITED STATES BOARD ON. An organization instituted in 1890, by President Harri- son, having for its object the introduc- tion of uniformity in the orthography of geographic names. The board has fifteen members, representing government de- partments and the Smithsonian Institute. Local usage is the rule generally fol- lowed in the adoption of names though regard is had to etymology, simplicity, and correctness in the decisions arrived ,a,t. New names, suggested by officers and (employees of the government, are passed on by the board before publication. Most of the work of the board in recent years has been in connection with over- sea possessions. GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, NATION- AL, a society founded in 1888 at Wash- ington, D. C, for the purpose of collecting and diffusing geographic knowledge. The principal means of accomplishing the latter purpose is the official organ of the society, the "National Geographic Magazine." The research work of the society is carried on independently, as well as in co-operation with other insti- tutions and organizations. The society has organized or participated in many scientific and exploring expeditions in North and South America. The mem- bership of the society is over 500,000.. Its headquarters at Washington are located in a building owned by the society and containing a valuable library of over 50,000 volumes. GEOGRAPHY, a delineation or de- scription of the earth as it at present is, leaving it to geology to investigate how it came into its present condition. It may be divided into three distinct sciences, mathematical or astronomical, physical, and political geography. Ma- thematical geography views the earth as a planet; it investigates its relations to the sun, the moon and other bodies be- longing to the solar system. It gives at- tention to the angle at which its axis is inclined to the ecliptic, the position of the arctic and antarctic circles and the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, the par- allels of latitude, and the meridians of longitude. Physical geography treats of the present distribution of sea and land, the currents of the oceans, the climates of the several continents and islands. With regard to the land, it commences by indicating the position of the moun- tain chains and table lands, thus fixing the positions of the great rivers, to which attention is next turned. Then the posi- tion of the alluvial plains, the deserts, etc., is pointed out; the distribution of the plants over the surface of the earth, often called botanical geogi'aphy, follows next; then that of the animals; and fi- nally that of the several races of man- kind. This branch of the science ap- proaches those of geology, hydrology, me- teorology, botany, zoology, and ethnology or anthropology. Finally, there follows political geography; which treats of the present distribution of political power over the world, the position and re- sources of the several empires, kingdoms, republics, etc. History. — Eratosthenes, B. C. 240, was one of the earliest ancient geographers of eminence; but the gi-eatest names in this department were Strabo — who lived during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius — and Ptolemy, who flourished about A. D. 139. The discovery of the