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THOBN 370 THOBNE tions being removed, and a series of de- tached forts built. Copernicus was a na- tive; and a colossal oronze statute of him was erected in 1853. An active trade in com and timber is carried on. Pop. about 46,000. THORN APPLE, Datura, a genus of plants of the natural order Solanaceoe, having a tubular five-cleft calyx, a large funnel-shaped five-lobed corolla, and an imperfectly four-celled, prickly, or un- armed capsule. The species of this genus are annual herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs or trees; they are in gen- eral narcotic, and productive of wild ex- citement or delirium. The common thorn- apple, or stramonium {D. stramonium), is an annual plant, with smooth stem and leaves, white flowers, and erect prickly capsules, a native of the East Indies, but now often met with in Europe, as also in Asia, the N. of Africa, and North Amer- ica. It contains a peculiar alkaloid, daturine, which is practically identical in its action with atropine. The leaves and seeds are employed in medicine. A variety with pale violet flowers and purplish violet stem is frequently culti- vated in gardens as an ornamental plant. THORN APPLE Still more narcotic is the soft-haired thorn apple {D. metel), a native of the S. of Asia and of Africa. The Thugs of India employed it in order to stupefy their victims, or, in other cases, to poison them outright. From its seeds, along with opium, hemp, and certain spices, a strong intoxicating substance is pre- pared, which the Mohammedans of India use in order to produce in themselves a state of exhilaration. The use of it de- stroys the constitution. D. tatula, an- other Indian species, has similar proper- ties. D. sanguinea, the red thorn apple of Peru, is used by the Indians to pre- pare a very powerful narcotic drink call- ed tonga, which stupefies when very di- luted, and when strong brings on ma- niacal excitement. The beautiful D. fastuosa has flowers externally of a violet color, and white within, and is cul- tivated as an ornamental plant, especial- ly a variety with what are called double flowers, which consist rather of two corol- las, one within the other. D. arborea, a native of Peru and Colombia, is culti- vated in flower gardens in Europe. It has pendulous white flowers, 9 to 12 inch- es long, which diffuse a sweet smell at night. THORNBACK, the name of a species of ray {Raia clavat'a), distinguished by the short and strong recurved spines, ris- ing from a broad osseous tubercular base, which are scattered over the back and tail. Two of these broad-based spines occupy the central ridge of the nose. THORNBURY, GEORGE WALTER, an English author; born in London in 1828. Beginning his literary career in Bristol at the age of 17, he soon after settled in London, where for 30 years he was almost continuously at work writing for "Household Words," "Once a Week," and "Athenaeum," etc. Among his nu- merous works are "Shakespeare's Eng- land," "Songs of the Cavaliers and Roundheads," "Haunted London," "Leg- endary and Historic Ballads," and a "Life of Turner," under the supervision of Ruskin. He died in London, June 11, 1876. THORNDIKE, EDWARD LEE, an educator; bom in Williamsburg, Mass., Aug. 31, 1874; was graduated at Wes- leyan University in 1895; pursued post- graduate studies at Harvard and Co- lumbia Universities in 1895-1898; was in- structor of genetic psychology at the Teachers' College of Columbia University in 1899-1901, and in the latter year was made adjunct professor. He was the au- thor of "The Human Nature Club" (19 0) ; "Educational Psychology" (1903-1913); "Education; a First Book" (1912) ; "The Psychology of Learning'* (1914). THORNE, JOSEPH, an American in- ventor; born in Marlboro, N. Y., Feb. 17, 1826; was of Quaker parentage; served through the Mexican War; became an engineer and was associated with Elias Howe while he was perfecting his sewing machine. Afterward he was connected with the Singer Company; established and operated a factory in Scotland; in- vented a typewriter, a sewing machine, a typesetting and distributing machine, etc He died in Sing Sing, N. Y., May ^ 1897.