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SPIRITUALISM 31 SPITZBERGEN lief that intercourse could be obtained with the spirit world became epidemic, and numerous "spirit circles" were formed in various parts of America. The manifestations thus said to be re- ceived from the spirit were rappings, table turnings, musical sounds, writings, the unseen raising of heavy bodies, and the like. The first professional medium who visited Europe was a Mrs. Hayden, and she was followed in 1855 by Daniel D. Home, who visited nearly all the courts of Europe. He claimed to possess unusual powers, and was said to be able to float up to the ceiling or out of the window into the next room. Such claims not only attracted the curious and converted the unthinking, but also received the attention of legal and scien- tific men. In America, Judge Edmonds and Professor Hare undertook to expose their fallacy, but both had to admit the genuineness of some of the evidence; while in England such eminent converts as A. R. Wallace, W. Crookes, F. R. S., and Professor De Morgan were inclined to put their credence in the truth of the phenomena. The London Dialectical Society appointed a committee to investi- gate the phenomena, and the report (1871) admits the genuineness of the phenomena, but does not seek to ex- plain their origin. In the United States, the believers in spiritualism are very numerous, and have many newspapers, magazines, and books to explain and en- force their belief. In 1884 the London Spiritualist Alliance was founded, and was incorporated in 1896. The chief work of the society has been to maintain and expound the principles of spiritual- ism. In the United States a National Spiritualist Association was organized at Washington, D. C, in 1893. There were in 1920 about 1,000 working societies throughout the country; 22 state asso- ciations; 32 camp meeting organizations and perhaps 1,000 local associations in various cities and towns. There were 200 churches; 500 ordained ministers, and 600,000 members. It is estimated that there are about 1500 public mediums throughout the United States. See Psychical Research. The Belief. — The popular belief seems to be that the phenomena of spiritualism are the result either of self-delusion on the part of believers, unconscious de- ception on the part of the medium, or clever conjuring. The more recent in- vestigations of the Psychical Society seem to show that there are forces con- nected with hypnotism and its kindred phenomena which may explain the occult occurrences of spiritualism on natural, though hitherto little known, laws. The belief of spiritualism is that our exis- tence in this world is but one stage in an endless career; that the whole material world exists simply for the development of spiritual beings, death being but a transition from this existence to the first grade of spirit life; that our thoughts and deeds here will affect our conditions later; and that our happiness and progress depend wholly on the use we make of our opportunities and faculties in this plane. SPITHEAD, a roadstead on the S. coast of England, and a favorite ren- dezvous of the British navy; is the E. division — the Solent (g. v.) being the W. — of the strait that separates the Isle of Wight fi-om the mainland. It is pro- tected from all winds, except those from the S. E., and its noted security war- ranted the name which has been applied to it by sailors of the "king's bed-cham- ber." It receives its name from the "Spit," a sandbank stretching S. from the Hampshire shore for 3 miles; and it is 14 miles long by about 4 miles in ave- rage breadth. Spithead has been strongly defended since 1864 by fortifications com- pleting those of Portsmouth. SPITZBERGEN, a group of three large and several small islands in the Arctic Ocean; between lat. 76° 30' and 80° 40' N.; Ion. 9° and 22° E.; nearly equidistant between Greenland and Nova Zembla, the largest being West Spitz- bergen and Northeast Land. Total area about 27,000 square miles. The coasts present immense glaciers and mountain chains, some of which exceed 4,000 feet in height. The climate is intensely cold; and vegetation is confined to a few plants of rapid growth. For four months in winter the sun is below the horizon, and for an equal period in sum- mer the sun is always above the horizon. The larger forms of animal life are foxes, bears, and reindeer, while sea fowl are numerous. The islands are rich in coal. In 1918 more than 100,000 tons were shipped to Scandinavian ports alone. The group appears to have been discov- ei-ed in 1553 by Willoughby, the English navigator, and was again visited in 1596 by the Dutch navigator Barentz in en- deavoring to effect a N. E. passage to India. Among the later explorers are Leigh Smith, Nordenskjold, Andreasen, Johannesen, Nansen, and Svordrup. Un- til the World War ended in 1918 the political status of Spitzbergen was un- defined. The treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1917) between Germans and Bolshe- vists disclosed that Germany proposed to control the islands. Great Britain there- fore in the summer of 1918 despatched an expedition imder Sir Ernest Shackle-