48. S and Z are formed by placing the tongue in the same position as in T and D, but not so close to the gums as to stop the breath: a space is left between the tongue and the palate for the breath to issue, which forms the hissing and buzzing sound of these letters.
49. SH heard in mission, and zh in evasion, are formed in the same seat of sound as s and z; but in the former, the tongue is drawn a little inwards, and at a somewhat greater distance from the palate, which occasions a fuller effusion of breath from the hollow of the mouth, than in the latter, which are formed nearer to the teeth.
50. TH in think, and the same letters in that are formed by protruding the tongue between the fore teeth, pressing it against the upper teeth, and at the same time endeavouring to sound the s or z; the former letter to sound th in think, and the latter to sound th in that.
51. K and G hard are formed by pressing the middle of the tongue to the roof of the mouth, near the throat, and separating them a little smartly to form the first, and more gently to form the last of these letters.
52. CH in chair, and J in jail, are formed by pressing t to sh, and d to zh.
53. M is formed by closing the lips, as in P and B, and letting the voice issue by the nose.
54. N is formed by resting the tongue in the same portion as in T or D, and breathing through the nose, with the mouth open.
55. L is formed by nearly the same position of the organs as t and d, but more with the tip of the tongue, which is brought a little forwarder to the teeth, while the breath issues from the mouth.
56. R is formed by placing the tongue nearly in the position of t, but at such a distance from the palate as suffers it to jar against it, when the breath is propelled from the throat to the mouth.
57. NG in ring, sing, etc. is formed in the same seat of sound as g hard; but while the middle of the tongue presses the root of the mouth, as in G, the voice passes principally through the nose, as in N.
58. Y consonant is formed by placing the organs in the position of e, and squeezing the tongue against the roof of the mouth, which produces ee, which is equivalent to initial y. (36)
59. W consonant is formed by placing the organs in the position of oo, described under u, and closing the lips a little more, in order to propel the breath upon the succeeding vowel which it articulates.
60. In this sketch of the formation and distribution of the consonants, it is curious to observe on how few radical principles the almost infinite variety of combination in language depends. It is with some degree of wonder we perceive that the slightest aspiration, the almost insensible inflexion of nearly similar sounds, often generate the most different and opposite meanings. In this view of nature, as in every other, we find uniformity and variety very conspicuous. The single fiat, at first impressed on the chaos, seems to operate on languages; which, from the simplicity and paucity of their principles, and the extent and power of their combinations, prove the goodness, wisdom, and omnipotence of their origin.
61. This analogical association of sounds is not only curious, but useful: it gives us a comprehensive view of the powers of the letters; and, from the small number that are radically different, enables us to see the rules on which their varieties depend: it discovers to us the genius and propensities of several languages and dialects, and, when authority is silent, enables us to decide agreeably to analogy.
62. The vowels, diphthongs, and consonants, thus enumerated and defined, before we proceed to ascertain their different powers, as they are differently associated with each other, it may be necessary to give some account of those distinctions of sound in the same vowels which express their quantity as long or short, or their quality as open or close, or slender and broad. This will appear the more necessary, as these distinctions so frequently occur in describing the sounds of the vowels, and as they are not unfrequently used with too little precision by most writers on the subject.
Of the Quantity and Quality of Vowels.
63. The first distinction of sound that seems to obtrude itself upon us when we utter the vowels, is a long and a short sound according to the greater or less duration of time taken up in pronouncing them. This distinction is so obvious as to have been adopted in all languages, and is that to which we annex clearer ideas than to any other; and though the short sounds of some vowels have not in our language been classed, with sufficient accuracy, with their parent long ones, yet this has bred but little confusion, as vowels long and short are always sufficiently distinguishable; and the nice appropriation of short sounds to their specific long ones is not necessary to our conveying what sound we mean, when the letter to which we apply these sounds is known, and its power agreed upon.
64. The next distinction of vowels into their specific sounds, which seems to be the most generally adopted, is that which arises from the different apertures of the mouth in forming them. It is certainly very natural, when we have so many more simple sounds than we have characters by which to express them, to distinguish them by that which seems their organic definition; and we accordingly find vowels denominated by the French, ouvert and fermé; by the Italians, aperto, and chiuso; and by the English, open and shut.
