school courses, but many of the universities demand in addition
two years or more of college work. In 1921 the number of law
students was more than 27,000, an increase of nearly 20% over
the pre-war figures.
Engineering. The beginnings of American technological train- ing were made, not in the long-established colleges, but in a group of special schools, independently founded, such as the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology in Boston and Stevens Institute in Hoboken, N.J. Later the universities took up engineering education with avidity, built up elaborate departments and offered the greatest variety of courses. Another type of technical school is the state college of " Agriculture and Mechanic Arts " supported by land grants from the Federal Government. Engi- neering schools require of applicants for admission the completion of the four-year secondary school course. Instruction is largely by means of laboratory courses. The university of Cincinnati has gone a step further and perfected an arrangement by which students spend half their time outside the college, actually employed in some form of engineering work; periods of two weeks of study alternate with like periods of practice in a shop. The degree of Bachelor of Science, with or without specification of the branch studied, is commonly conferred after four years of college work. Those of Civil Engineer, Mining Engineer, and so forth, are awarded for undergraduate work by some schools in place of the B.Sc. ; by others reserved for more advanced study.
Dentistry. Since 1900 there has been increasing uniformity among dental schools until in 1921 all recognized schools required for admission at least the completion of a four-year secondary school course, and gave four full years of professional training. It was even proposed that beginning in 1926 the entrance re- quirement for dental schools be raised to include two years of college work. The growing appreciation of the value of dentistry is indicated by the increase in the ratio of the number of dentists to the total population. In 1850 this ratio was 12 for 100,000; in 1910 it was 43; in 1920, 56.
Veterinary Medicine. In this, as in other professions, there has come a realization of the necessity for a/- solid foundation of general education on which to base special training. The accept- ed standard in 1921 was the completion of a four-year secondary school course and three years in a college of veterinary medicine. In 1900 13 schools enrolled 362 students and graduated 100 veterinarians. In 1916 the numbers had increased to 22 schools, 3,064 students and 759 graduates. The war brought about a great reduction in the number of those choosing veterinary medicine as a career. In 1921 the number of veterinary schools declined to 14 and the student enrolment to 849.
University Extension. Under this head are grouped all those activities of institutions of higher learning which are carried on for the benefit of people unable, through lack of time or training, to matriculate in the regular college or university courses, but who still desire some form of higher education, and this extension of facilities is designed to include in its scope persons many years older than the ordinary undergraduate. Originally no more than a series of public lectures on topics of literary, historical or scientific interest, this extra-mural teaching has extended its range, diversified its method, and multiplied its activities, until it has become, in some instances at least, an important function of the university. The spirit of service to the community which it embodies was expressed by the late President Van Hise in these words: " So far as the university of Wisconsin is concerned, we propose to take up any line of educational work within the state for which the university is the best fitted instrument," and again, " It is my ideal of a state university that it should be a beneficent influence to every citizen of the state." In such a programme the whole realm of human knowledge is included, from sewing to Sanskrit and from plumbing to philosophy. Sum- mer sessions, of from six to eight weeks' duration, provide valua- ble opportunities for those, chiefly teachers and students, whose work allows a long vacation. Varying standards prevail in the summer schools; in not a few the amount and quality of the work render it acceptable as part of the requirement for a degree. The university of Chicago has made its summer session the full
equivalent of one of the winter terms and operates on a four- quarter schedule. Teaching by mail is another method em- ployed by some universities to widen their spheres of influence. Extension teaching is also carried on by local boards of education, especially in large cities. Much of it takes the form of part-time classes for children who have left school prematurely and for immigrants who lack command of the English language. Private enterprise outside of academic circles has contributed to exten- sion teaching along two distinct lines. The Chautauqua Assem- bly is the prototype of the summer school, and has exerted a very wide influence through the thousands who each year attend its courses. Quite different in scope, but not less valuable, is the kind of work done by other institutions which provide opportuni- ties and incentives for continuous and serious study as well as lecture courses and concerts having a wider appeal. Perhaps the most valuable extension teaching is that which reaches into the home, bringing to the mother such information as will aid her in solving her manifold and peculiar problems. The U.S. Govern- ment prepares and distributes upon request a comprehensive series of pamphlets containing instruction regarding the selec- tion and preparation of food, infant feeding, child hygiene and many other subjects. Whenever possible, nurses and women trained in the household arts visit the homes and, by personal directions and demonstration, often succeed in promoting the welfare of the family where print alone would fail. Intellectual development is stimulated by courses of home reading. The recognition of the importance of home influences as factors in the child's success at school has led to the formation of " parent- teacher associations," from which the teachers gain a knowledge of the home environment of their pupils and the parents learn how best to cooperate in the education of their children.
Vocational Training. This term denotes training of less than college grade, designed to fit the individual to earn a livelihood. Its beginning in the form of manual training may be traced back as far as 1880, but except for a few isolated experiments it is a development of the 2oth century. Phases in the progress toward an understanding of the problem have been:- (i) attention was focussed on " misfits "; based on what might be called a ' niche " theory of society, the problem was stated as that of finding the particular place or station in life that exists somewhere for each individual; (2) it was held to be the duty of society to regard with earnest concern and in some way to aid those that are defective;
(3) then came the idea that the schools might prevent individual and perhaps unusual types from being spoiled in the making;
(4) next came a shift in emphasis to the necessity for vocational training; and (5) finally has come a recognition of the necessity for an educational survey of the community in order to deter- mine what opportunities are already available and what its industrial needs really are. The so-called Smith-Hughes Act passed by Congress in 1917 authorized appropriations which will aggregate $7,000,000 a year for promoting, in cooperation with the states, special training in schools designed to meet the needs of those who are preparing to enter agriculture or industry; provision is also made for training teachers for this work by industrial or commercial corporations and by the cooperative effort of the schools and the corporations. The teaching of domestic science was begun in the schools of Framingham, Mass., in 1898. The desirability of such training for every young girl has led to the inclusion of one or more courses in home economics in the curriculum of every girls' high school and also in the upper grades of the better-organized elementary schools.
Agricultural Education. Training for agricultural pursuits, more than any other branch of education, has been fostered by the Federal Government. Its development manifests several stages, each characterized by a different method. The land grants of 1862 led to the establishment of state colleges of " Agriculture and Mechanic Arts," which, however, for a generation at least, were predominantly schools of engineering. In 1887 Congress authorized subsidies to agricultural experiment stations under state control, a policy the wisdom of which was quickly demonstrated. In a few years these stations accumulated a wealth of exact knowledge relating to farm problems which
