three State Management schemes, and their administration, were transferred as regards the English areas to the Home Office, and as regards the Scottish areas to the Scottish Office; (13) the Welsh Sunday Closing provisions were extended to Monmouthshire.
With the passage of this Act, the period of control closed. The Central Control Board (Liquor Traffic) came to an end two months later, on transfer of its responsibilities in the State Management districts. The Act was in itself a recognition of the worth of the work done for national sobriety by the Board during the six years of its existence.
AUTHORITIES. Reports of the Central Control Board (Liquor Traffic), first, 1915 (Cd. 8117); second, 1915-6 (Cd. 8243); third, 1916-7 (Cd. 8558); fourth, 1917-8 (Cd. 9055); Reports to Board of General Manager for Carlisle and District Direct Control Area, 1918 (Cd. 137); 1919 (Cd. 666); 1920 (Cd. 1252); Alcohol: Its Action on the Human Organism (H.M. Stationery Office); Henry Carter, The Control of the Drink Trade in Britain. (H. CA.)
UNITED STATES
Nowhere is a wider range of experimentation or a greater variety of legislation dealing with the liquor traffic to be found than in the United States. The Federal Congress legislates for the District of Columbia and Federal territory, such as military and naval stations, Indian reservations, etc., located in the several states, and has exclusive control over interstate commerce. The 48 state Legislatures, before national prohibition was adopted in 1919, had almost exclusive independent and sovereign power to deal with the matter. The result was that a great num- ber of statutes were enacted after 1910 for the regulation and control of the liquor traffic. There was, however, no new departure from the general principles of the liquor laws in force in the United States in 1910. The more important state statutes and the Federal legislation leading up to and including the adoption of the Prohibition Amendment to the Constitution in 1919 with its enforcing legislation (Act of Oct. 28 1919, National Prohi- bition Act, also known as the Volstead Act) are discussed in the article PROHIBITION.
The spread of state prohibition by both constitutional amendment of state constitutions and by enactments of state Legislatures was continuous during the five-year period prior to the adoption of national prohibition. On Jan. 17 1920, when national prohibition went into effect, only 1 5 of the 48 states had any " wet " area and of the total pop. of all the states 68-3% resided in " dry " areas. The land area under prohibition was 95-4% dry as compared with 4-6% under licence by state law, although this fact is perhaps less significant than the percentage of population. National prohibition provided for " concurrent " power in the Federal Congress and in the state Legislatures for its enforcement so that many of the state Legislatures, since national prohibition went into effect, have taken their own measures for the definition and enforcement of state-wide prohibition, which may be more, but not less, than strict national constitutional prohibition or the enforcement legislation enacted by Congress. Local option within the several states made con- tinuous progress (1910-9) and resulted in the extension of dry territory, all kinds of expedients being employed to protect the population of dry areas, against the influence and practices of contiguous wet areas.
A considerable and interesting effort has been made in many states to provide by legislation for the treatment of inebriety, the prevention of public drunkenness, and the protection of minors and habitual drunkards and persons in an intoxicated condition to whom the sale of intoxicating beverages was pro- hibited by state and local laws and ordinances. Liquor selling in .connexion with dance-halls and places of public amusement and recreation has been increasingly restricted or prohibited by state and local legislation in the interest of public morals. (S. McC. L.)
LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER, BARON (1827-1912), English physician (see 16.777*), died at Walmer Feb. 10 1912.
LITHOGRAPHY (see 16.785). The most important development in lithography during the decade 1910-20 was the invention of the mechanical transfer machine. This machine eliminates the pulling-over of the design upon the press plate by hand labour, the process being termed " mechanical transferring." The design or designs are positioned on the metal plate with the aid of photo-lithography. The plate is prepared for the mechan- ical transfer in practically the same way as for hand transferring from lithographic stones; that is, the plate is first grained to hold water when printing and then counter-etched to secure a clean surface. The plate is next coated with a light-sensitive solution such as bichromated albumen, after which it is placed in the mechanical transferring machine in contact with a nega- tive, representing the picture, or a colour of the picture, and exposed to light. The plate is then covered with ink, and the albumen not affected by the light washed away with water, leaving the image, or images, in hardened albumen. The plate is then etched, gummed up and is ready for printing.
The mechanical transfer machine consists of a metal plate-holder, in which the sensitized printing surface is placed, a negative holder, and an arc lamp. The print of the negative upon the press plate is obtained by either contact-printing or projection, the positioning of the image being controlled by an accurate system of gauges or dials. After one impression has been obtained, the printing plate or the negative is moved to where it is desired, according to the layout, that the next impression should appear.
Another method is to project or contact-print the image of a positive the required number of times upon a large negative. This multiple negative is then placed in a contact-printing frame and exposed upon a sensitized press plate the desired number of times through moving the negative by hand, according to a system of register marks. Still other variations are in use.
LITHUANIA, REPUBLIC OF. Lithuania is on the whole a low-lying country watered by the Niemen (" Niemunas " name of a heathen deity) and its tributaries. The highest part is in the south and east, where the Baltic hills extend in crescent formation from Gumbinnen in East Prussia through Suvalki (Suwalki) and Vilna to Dvinsk. This chain of hills is broken by two valleys, that of the Niemen flowing through Grodno and Olita to Kovno, that of the Vilya, flowing from Vilna to Janov to its junction with the Niemen below Kovno. In the north-west is situated another triangle of hills, the Telshi- Shavli-Rossieni. Between these two hilly regions lies the plain of the Niemen with its two principal tributaries, the Niaviaza and the Dubissa flowing in from the north. The only other river of importance is the Svienta, flowing south-west to join the Vilya near Janov, and in the north the Muscha, which joins the Aa at Bausk in Latvia.
Early History. For early history see LITHUANIANS AND LETTS (i 6. 789), also POL AND (21.902). The union between the kingdom of Poland and the grand duchy of Lithuania was brought about on Feb. 14 1386 by the marriage of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila (Jagello) to the Polish Queen Jadviga and confirmed by the subsequent pacts of Vilna in 1401 and 1432, of Horodlo in 1413, of Grodno in 1501 and 1512 and, parliamentarily, of Lublin in 1569. Thus was established a political combination in which Lithuania in point of territory was three times the size of Poland. The contracting parties were to retain their names, laws, administrative institutions, financial and military organizations. Through the fact, however, that from 1501 onwards the Lithuanians and the Poles were ruled over by one sovereign and from 1569 onwards had a common legislature, the former, though ever anxious to break away, gradually sank into a state of dependence. The Poles, past-masters in the art of political intrigue, never lost an opportunity of imposing their hegemony. Accordingly the Dual State was involved in a common downfall, and in the three partitions of 1772, 1792 and 1795 to which it was subjected at the hands of Russia, Prussia and Austria, Lithuania fell a prey to Russia and Prussia. But, while the Tsarist regime, unable to denationalize a homogeneous population of a different religion and language, initially conceded a minimum of rights to the Polish nation, in Lithuania proper from the outset an unrelenting system of tyranny was established which was designed to break by force every non-Russian element in the country.
Russia had annexed the six Lithuanian Governments between 1772 and 1795 and united them as the " Litovskaya Gubernia " in 1797, that is to say, before the Treaty of Vienna conceded her the kingdom of Poland in 1815. At the Warsaw Diet of 1818, the liberal-minded Alexander I. still spoke of the reunion of Lithuania with Poland under constitutional forms. But the project lapsed because already then any measure of self-government by extending the power of the Polish " szlachta " (land-owning noble class) in Lithuania menaced Russia's influence in that country which strategically rounded off her north-western frontier. Yet, under the
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