176 ADULTERATION fcenugreek, &c., so as to conceal its real character ; and notwithstanding its disagreeable flavour, it got into public favour in some districts, especially in Ireland, and was largely sold as a cheap means of producing intoxication. 22. The Adulteration of Textile Fabrics. Woollen goods have for years past been largely adulterated with refuse fibres called " shoddy" or " mingo." The practice was denounced by Latimer in one of his sermons at Paul s Gross, preached before king Edward in 1G35, wherein he spoke of it as the devil s artifice, saying that they were wont to make beds of flock, but now they had turned it into dust, which he aptly called " Devil s dust," and that the cloth worker did so incorporate it to the cloth that it was wonderful to see. The practice is still in vogue, for there is hardly a piece of cheap cloth without it. Shoddy as originally used was merely the fluff or waste from the looms, but now it consists of any kind of woollen rubbish, as old blankets, stockings, <fcc., pulled to pieces in a machine called the " Devil." Mingo is even a shorter description of fibre, and is made in the same way from old rags. No less than forty millions of pounds of these are made annually in Yorkshire, at an estimated value of eight millions sterling, and all of it is used for adulterating woollen cloth. There is even another kind of refuse called " extract," which is employed for the same purpose. It consists of the wool obtained from the rags of mixed goods ; that is, goods which have a cotton or linen warp blended with wool. The cotton is destroyed by chemical agency, chiefly by means of dilute sulphuric acid, and the wool is left intact. The cotton fabrics and gray goods of Lancashire and Yorkshire are largely adulterated with size and china clay, the object being to give them increased weight and sub stance. Up to about twenty years ago the sizing of cotton goods was effected with a mixture of fermented flour, paste, and tallow, by which means the tenacity of the warp was increased and the friction of weaving was lessened. To effect this about 20 per cent, of size was used ; but in 1854, when tallow became dear in consequence of the Russian war, a substitute was found in china clay. Later still in 1862, when the cotton famine began to be felt, and the long-fibred American cotton grew scarce, it was found necessary to give tenacity to the twist made from shorter fibre by using more size. In this manner as much as from 50 to 90 per cent, of size has got to be used, the greater part of it being china clay, with a certain proportion of hygroscopic matter, such as chloride of magnesium, to keep the material damp and supple. The impurity is easily detected by washing the cloth, and ascertaining the loss of weight before and after the operation. Cheap calicoes are also largely impregnated with lime, which has been used in the process of bleaching, and left in them. A cloud of dust flies out of such fabrics when they are torn. Silk also is made heavier and stouter by the incorporation of dye stuffs used expressly for the purpose. This is generally the case with dark-coloured silks, black and brown, as lighter shades will hardly admit of it ; as much indeed as half the weight of the silk may be thus incorporated with it. 23. Falsification of Coin and Precious Metals. In Anglo- Saxon times the debasing or counterfeiting of coin was punished by the loss of the hand. In later times it has been criminal in the highest degree. By the statute 24 and 25 Viet. c. 99, the counterfeiting of gold or silver coin is felony, and in Scotland is a high crime and offence. Hardly less severe is the punishment for debasing, diminishing, lightening, or impairing the value of the current coin of the realm ; and very effectual means are taken to secure their standard value when put into circulation. In the first place, an officer is appointed by the Crown to super intend the coinage, and to be answerable for its goodness. (See MINT and COINAGE.) In the second place, the coin is tested, as to its weight and fineness, by persons skilled in the goldsmith s craft. (See ASSAY.) But notwithstanding this, the coins of the realm, as issued from the mint, have often been debased to a considerable extent ; for, according to Lord Liverpool, the total debasement of the silver money of this country, from the time of the Conquest to the reign of Elizabeth, was not less than Go per cent. It is notorious that in Spain, Austria, and Turkey the degradation of the silver coin, even at the present time, is carried to a serious extent. By the Coinage Act 1870 (33 and 34 Viet. c. 10) the composition and weight of all the coins of this country are strictly provided for ; and in the case of gold coin, the limits or "remedy" of fineness and weight are exceedingly narrow. The composition of the coin is fixed at eleven-twelfths fine gold, and one-twelfth alloy (copper) ; so that in 1000 parts of our gold coin there are 916 6G parts of fine gold. This is called its millesimal fineness, and the allowance for error in composition is limited to 002 per 1000 parts. The weight of the sovereign is fixed at 123 - 27447 grains, and the limit of error in weight is the 2 of a grain ; and in proportion with all other gold coins. In the case of silver coins, the composition is thirty-seven fortieths of fine silver, and three-fortieths of alloy (copper) the millesimal fineness being therefore 925 parts of silver ; the remedy or allowance of fineness is just twice that of gold namely, 004 per 1000 parts. The weight of the silver coin is at the rate of 87 2 72 72 grains per shilling of value ; and the remedy or allowance of error i? confined to 363G3 of a grain per shilling. Lastly, tb.- bronze coinage of the country consists of 95 parts copper, 4 tin, and 1 zinc : the weight of a penny being 145 8333-> grains; and the allowance for error is 2 916GG grains per penny. The specific gravity of the several descriptions of coin is 17 53 for gold, 10 35 for silver, and 8 89 for bronze. So accurate are the composition and weight of the coins issued from the mint at the present time, that at the last trial of the " Pyx" in July 1871, the jury reported that every piece separately examined (representing many millions sterling) was found to be accurately coined in regard to weight and fineness. In the case of the gold coin, the fineness ranged from 91 6 2 to 917 parts per 1000. These, indeed, were the extremes of only 2 66 per cent, of the coins examined, the great bulk of them, namely 7 2 6 5 per cent, having a fineness of from 916 5 to 916 - 7 per 1000. Now, when it is considered that the composition of an alloy of gold and copper can be ascertained to the one-ten thousandth part, and that the delicacy of a balance is to the thousandth part of a grain, it must be evident that the accuracy and perfection of coining in this country are remarkably precise. As, however, the weight of gold and silver coin must become less by continual wear, the Acts 22 and 25 Viet. c. 99, and 33 and 34 Viet. c. 10 provide for it. It does not appear that the practice of debasing coin is carried on to any great extent in this country ; for in the second Annual Report of the Deputy- Master of the Mint (1871), the chemist of the Mint (Mr W. Chandler Roberts) says that only two sovereigns were submitted to him, the weight of which had been fraudulently reduced by means of a solvent, aided by electricity. In former times, however, the process of " sweating " was very frequently employed. The adulteration of precious metals was prohibited and provided for by the rules and regulations of the various guilds and corporations which took cognizance of the goldsmiths craft. As early as the 2Gth of Henry II. (1180) the Goldsmiths Company of London was founded, and in 1327, when it was incorporated, it was invested with the privilege and power of inspecting, trying, and
regulating all gold and silver wares throughout the king-
