Opinion of the Court
use is “likely to cause consumer confusion.” Ibid. And likewise, VIP could not invoke the dilution provision’s fair-use exclusion. Parodies fall within that exclusion, the court explained, only when the uses they make of famous marks do not serve as “a designation of source for the [alleged diluter’s] own goods.” Id., at 104a (quoting §1125(c)(3)(A)).
The case thus proceeded to a bench trial, where Jack Daniel’s prevailed. The District Court found, based largely on survey evidence, that consumers were likely to be confused about the source of the Bad Spaniels toy. See 291 F. Supp. 3d 891, 906–911 (D Ariz. 2018). And the court thought that the toy, by creating “negative associations” with “canine excrement,” would cause Jack Daniel’s “reputational harm.” Id., at 903, 905.
But the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reversed, ruling that the District Court had gotten the pretrial legal issues wrong. In the Ninth Circuit’s view, the infringement claim was subject to the threshold Rogers test because Bad Spaniels is an “expressive work”: Although just a dog toy, and “surely not the equivalent of the Mona Lisa,” it “communicates a humorous message.” 953 F. 3d 1170, 1175 (2020) (internal quotation marks omitted). The Court of Appeals therefore returned the case to the District Court to decide whether Jack Daniel’s could satisfy either of Rogers’ two prongs. And the Ninth Circuit awarded judgment on the dilution claim to VIP. The court did not address the statutory exclusion for parody and other fair use, as the District Court had. Instead, the Court of Appeals held that the exclusion for “noncommercial use” shielded VIP from liability. §1125(c)(3)(C). The “use of a mark may be ‘noncommercial,’ ” the court reasoned, “even if used to sell a product.” 953 F. 3d, at 1176 (internal quotation marks omitted). And here it was so, the court found, because it “parodies” and “comments humorously” on Jack Daniel’s. Id., at 1175; see id., at 1176.
On remand, the District Court found that Jack Daniel’s
