1232 RUSSIA
On September 1, 1017, the total indebtedness of Russia amounted to 32,300 million roubles, made up as follows : — Pre-war debt, 8,800 million roubles ; seven internal war loans, 10,500 million roubles ; loans contracted abroad, 8,000 million roubles ; short-dated loans, 5,000 million roubles.
Defence.
I. Army.
In the declaration issued by the President of the Council of the People's Commissaries on November 15, 1917, it was stated that 'soldiers and sailors are delivered from the power of autocratic generals, because from henceforth generals will be elected and can be changed.' All rank, out- ward distinction and titles have been abolished and all officers are to be elected.
By a decree of February 1, 1918, the Government established a ' "Workers and Peasants ' Red Army of Volunteers, and under the pressure of military events the organisation and discipline of that army steadily improved. A large number of regular officers of the old Russian army joined the Bolshevik forces either voluntarily or under compulsion, an eflicient general staff was organised for planning and executing military operations, and most of the former rules of military discipline were gradually reintroduced. Wherever former officers were suspected of lukewarm sympathies with their new position, a civilian ' political Commissary ' was attached to them to supervise their work and organise political propa- ganda in the unit for which he was responsible. Many officers in the course of the civil war by their activities justified the withdrawal of the Commissary, in other cases the Commissary himself acquired the necessary military experience to enable him to take over command. There are still a large number of units, however, with the dual organisation in the Red Army. Under these arrangements the Soviet armies were conspicuously successful during the second half of the year 1919. The armies of Admiral Kolt- chak were annihilated and those of General Deuikin had been driven back towards the Caucasus and the shores of the Black Sea. At the end of January, 1920, the Soviet Government controlled Siberia as far east as Lake Baikal and almost the whole of European Russia. The year 1920 was marked by a revival of military activity, after a brief period of peace, in April. A rapid Polish advance to Kieff was succeeded by an equally rapid Russian advance to Warsaw, checked and driven back about half way in its turn during the autumn. In October 1 General Wrangel, General Denikin's successor in the Black Sea littoral, was finally defeated and forced to leave the country. By January, 1921, no hostile forces existed at any point on the territories of the •former Russian Empire.
The Red Army is supplemented by the militia, organised on a basis of universal military service. Training begins at the age of 18, consisting of a preliminary course of 96 hours, lasting 1'. months, and a supplementary course of 280 hours, lasting 28 days. For militia purposes the territory of the Republic is divided into 93 regimental districts, sub-divided into battalion, company, and platoon subdistricts. Each of the latter consists of several 'training points,' usually an urban centre or a factory : there are 28,000, of these in all.
II. Navy.
After the defeat of General Wrangel whatever remained of the Black Sea Fleet came under control of the Soviet Government. In the Baltic there are considerable forces, though the degree of their efficiency is uncertain.
