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ARMY 751 time of Napoleon I. As to cavalry, the Euro- pean nations still adhere to the system of Fred- erick, with some slight modifications. The Americans during the civil war made great progress, in the organization and use of cavalry, or more properly of mounted troops. The first regiments called into service were strictly light cavalry, but the improvements in carbines and revolvers or repeating pistols, combined with the wooded nature of the country in which they were compelled to operate, soon gave a distinctively new character to this arm. Instead of fighting on horseback, using the sabre alone or the sabre and pistol, it became necessary for the cavalry regiments to fight generally on foot; and in this they not only reached a high state of efficiency, but, under Sheridan in the east and Wilson in the west, exerted a powerful influence in bringing the war to an end. The mounted troops operating in Virginia were organized into a separate body from 10,000 to 15,000 strong, called the cavalry corps of the army of the Potomac; while those in Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama, amounting to 72 regiments, and reaching at the close of the war 35,000 effi- cients, were organized into one command, of- ficially known as the cavalry corps of the military division of the Mississippi. These immense masses of mounted troops were strong enough to act independently against the com- munications and depots of the enemy, or in cooperation with the infantry, upon the flanks and rear of the confederate armies. In the final campaigns in Virginia, and especially at the battle of Winchester or the Opequan, in the destruction of the railroads about Rich- mond, particularly the South Side road, at the battle of Five Forks, in the pursuit and cap- ture of Lee's army, in the battles of Franklin and Nashville, in the pursuit and dispersion of Hood's army, in the assault and capture of Selma, Columbus, and West Point (Ga.), in the pursuit and capture of Davis and the confed- erate chieftains, these corps gave proof of their extraordinary merits, not only as cavalry marching rapidly and for long distances, but as infantry fighting steadily and with great dash against infantry and artillery, assaulting and .carrying earthworks, and in the per- formance of the various duties of active war- fare. The success of these corps was doubt- less greatly influenced partly by their com- pact and independent organization, and partly by the efficient character of their firearms, which at the end of the war were almost exclusively Spencer carbines or rifles, breech- loading magazine guns of unrivalled excel- lence at that time. It is believed that no well directed attack made by troops using these arms was ever known to fail, whether against cavalry, infantry, or intrenchments. (See CA VALET.) In artillery, considerable improve- ments of detail and simplification of calibres, and of models for wheels, carriages, &c., have taken place hi every army. The science of artillery has been greatly improved. All mod- ern armies now use rifled cannon for field ser- vice, as well as for siege purposes. Field guns are made of steel and wrought and cast iron, and are of various calibres, all throwing steel or iron balls, bolts, or shells, more or less elongated ; these guns are also adapted to the use of canisters of small shot, and have almost entirely replaced the smooth-bored brass guns and howitzers in actual service. The Ameri- cans, Prussians, and Belgians have been fore- most in making improvements in artillery. (See AKTILLEBY.) The general organization of modern armies is very much alike. With the exception of the British and American, they are recruited by compulsory levy, based either upon conscription, in which case the men, after serving their time, are dismissed for life, or upon the reserve system, in which the time of actual service is short, but the men remain liable to be called out again for a cer- tain time afterward. France is the most strik- ing example of the first, Prussia of the second system. Even in England, where both line and militia are generally recruited by voluntary enlistment, the conscription (or ballot) is by law established for the militia should volunteers be wanting. In Switzerland, no standing army exists ; the whole force consists of militia drill- ed for a short time only. The enlistment of foreign mercenaries is still the rule in some countries ; the French still have their foreign legion ; and England, in case of serious war, is regularly compelled to resort to this expedient. The time of actual service varies very much : ; from a couple of weeks with the Swiss, 18 months to 2 years with the smaller German states, and 3 years with the Prussians, to 5 or 6 years in France, 12 years in England, and 15 years in Russia. The officers are recruited in various ways. In most armies there are now no legal impediments to advancement from the ranks, but the practical impediments widely vary. In France and Austria a portion of the officers must be taken from the sergeants ; in Russia the insufficient number of educated can- didates makes this a necessity. In Prussia the examination for officers' commissions in peace is a bar to uneducated men; in England ad- vancement from the ranks is a rare exception. For the remainder of the officers there are in most countries military schools, though, with the exception of France, it is not necessary to pass through them. In military and general education the Prussian officers are ahead ; the English and the Russians stand lowest in both. With the exceptions named above, the equip- ment and armament of modern armies are now everywhere nearly the same. There is, of course, a great difference in the quality and workmanship of the material. In this respect the Russians stand lowest, and the English and Americans, where the industrial advantages at their command are really made use of, stand highest. The infantry of all armies is divided into line and light infantry. The first is the