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CARTHAGE CARTHUSIANS 39 an allied city of the Romans on the seacoast, and by crossing the Ebro contrary to protest, if not to treaty. The passage of Hannibal across the Alps, the victories of the Ticinus, the Trebia, Lake Thrasymene, and Cannse, the defeat on the Metaurus and the death of Hanni- bal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal, the 16 Italian campaigns, the simultaneous victories of the Roman arms in Spain and Sicily, the transfer of the war to Africa by the elder Scipio Afri- canus, the defeat of Zama, and the total sub- mission, subjection, and disarming of Carthage, are the principal incidents of the second Punic war, which continued about 18 years, and was concluded in 201 by the virtual subjection of Carthage. (See HANNIBAL.) An interval of 52 years followed, during which Rome en- couraged her allies to commit aggressions on Carthage; until that city, in despair, went to war to repel unendurable insult and pro- vocation, regardless of the late treaty which forbade them to take up arms against any na- tion without consent of the Romans. After this the Romans, as the price of peace, ex- torted from them all their remaining ships of war, all their arms, military engines, and sup- plies, compelled them to give 300 hostages, and then commanded them, as the only alternative by which to escape destruction, to abandon their city and seashore position, and to remove 10 miles inland. The third Punic war resulted, and for three years (149-146) the unarmed, almost defenceless citizens of Carthage maintained a warfare of despair. At the end of that space a second Scipio, the son of Paulus JEmilius, the conqueror of Perseus, adopted by the son of the conqueror of Hannibal, took the city by storm, and destroyed it, razing it to the ground, passing the ploughshare over its site, and sow- ing salt in the furrows, the emblem of barren- ness and annihilation. The inhabitants fought from street to street, while the houses burned over their heads, during 17 days, until 55,000 persons, the whole of the survivors of a nation, were shut up in the ancient citadel called Byrsa, where they surrendered at discretion, and were all sold into slavery. Hasdrubal only, the commander, with his wife, children, and 300 Roman deserters, took refuge in the temple of JEsculapius, with the determination to defend themselves to the last, and die under the ruins of the last Punic edifice. The heart of the leader failed him, and while his wife and all his followers met the death from which he meanly shrank, he surrendered himself to be led in triumph, and to die by the hands of the Roman carnifex in the Tullianum. About 80 years after the destruction of Carthage, a portion of the city was temporarily restored, and called Junonia, by 6,000 colonists whom C. Gracchus brought over from Rome. Long afterward, in 46 B. C., Caesar planted a small colony on the ruins of Carthage ; and Augus- tus, his successor, built a city, of the same name, at a small distance, which attained some eminence. It became an important Christian bishopric A. D. 215. Cyprian held a council there in 252. It was conquered by Genseric from the Romans in 439, and continued to be the seat of the African empire of the Vandals until it was retaken by Belisarius in 534. It was finally destroyed by the Saracens in the caliphate of Abd-el-Melek in 698. See Bot- ticher, dfeschichte der Karihager (Berlin, 1827) ; Munter, Religion der Karthager (2d ed., Co- penhagen, 1821); and Davis, "Carthage and her Remains " (New York, 1861). In connec- tion with Phoenician antiquities, those of Car- thage have been treated by Movers, Gesenius, and others. CARTHAGENA. See CARTAGENA. CARTIIAGO NOVA. See CAETAGKNA. CARTHA9IINE. See SAFFLOWEE. CARTHEUSER, Johann Friedrich, a German phy- sician and naturalist, born at Hayn, Sept. 29, 1704, died at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, June 22, 1777. He studied medicine first at Jena and afterward at Halle, where he took the degree of doctor in 1731. He was appointed in 1740 professor of chemistry, pharmacy, and materia medica at the university of Frankiort-on-the- Oder, and shortly afterward to the chair of anatomy and botany. Still later he was named professor of pathology and therapeutics. He was also appointed rector of the university, and continued to hold his appointments till his death. He was made member of the academy of sciences, Berlin, in 1758. His chief merit consists in having introduced the method of submitting the various substances of materia medica to a strict ordeal of chemical analysis. He analyzed a great number of plants and other substances, and gave an exact account of the elements which enter into their compo- sition. He published a considerable number of books and dissertations, among which are : Elementa Chymios Medicce Dogmatico-experi- mentalis (Halle, 1736) ; Fundamenta Materim Medicos Generalis et Specialis (2 vols., Frank- fort, 1749-'50) ; and De Morlis Endemicis Li- lellus (Frankfort, 1772). CARTHUSIANS, a branch of the religions or- der of the Benedictines, founded by St. Brnno in 1086. The first monastery of the order was built in a wild and solitary district six miles from Grenoble, in the department of Isere, known as La Chartreuse, whence the order took its name. The observances of the Car- thusian monks were austere and penitential in an extraordinary degree, even among contem- plative orders. They devoted a portion of their time to manual labor, consisting chiefly in the transcribing of ancient MSS. Their la- bors as agriculturists gained great renown for their name, for they reclaimed marshy and un- healthy neighborhoods, and caused the rocky and barren fastnesses of La Chartreuse and oth- er desert regions to bloom with the fruits of patient and intelligent toil. They had rich and celebrated abbeys in England, France, and Germany. The Charterhouse in London was once a Carthusian monastery. The Certosa