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INDIA (RELIGIONS AND RELIGIOUS LITERATURE) 223 is "a mere conjectural hypothesis, which is not fairly entitled even to temporary and provisional acceptance." Among the works belonging; to the Sutra division are some- times reckoned the Praticakhyas, which are treatises explaining the phonetic peculiarities of the text of the hymns, and the Anukramanis, which are indices to the texts, and state the author, theme, length, and metres of each hymn. During the period that Sanskrit gradu-' ally ceased to be the national tongue, there seem to have appeared also a number of works which are of considerable importance for the history of the country as well as for its religion. They are the Dharmacastras or books of laws, 56 in number, of which the famous laws of Manu, which the- Hindoos still regard as the standard of their public and social law, are probably the oldest. In its present form, and from the internal evidence of its opposi- tion to Buddhism, this work is supposed to date from about the 4th century B. C. It lays down the rules which are to guide persons of various castes in their behavior toward each other, and contains a multitude of cosmogonic speculations. The chief monuments of this age, however, are two long epics or Itihasas. One is the Hahabharata, which describes the feuds between the Pandavas and Kauravas, royal races, descendants of the Bharatas. In its present form it consists of more than 100,000 double verses or flokas, of which the best known portions are the Nala and the Bhagavad-Gitd. Lassen places the redaction of this epic between 400 and 350 B. 0., Benfey in the 3d century, and Weber in the last two centuries before our era. The other epic is the Ramayana, which describes in about 24,000 double verses the great deeds of Rama, a prince of Ay6dhya or Oude, resulting in the extension of Aryan do- minion over the Deccan and Ceylon. Rama is represented as an incarnation of Vishnu, and Brahmanic asceticism and hierarchy are domi- nant features in it. As the Ramayana contains no allusions to Buddhism, Lassen considers it the older of the two epics ; but Duncker as- signs it to a later date, as it does not describe an equally well defined priesthood. It is general- ly believed that both epics were originally oral productions ; but they are ascribed to special poets. The Ramayana is said to have been sung by Kuga and Lava, the sons of its hero, who had learned it from the Brahman Valmiki. Their names were subsequently contracted into Kucilava, which came to bo applied to any bard or actor. The Mahabharata is ascribed to Vya- sa, who is said to have been an eye-witness of the events. Vaicarnpayana, his pupil, recited it for the first time at the great serpent sacri- fice of the king Janamejaya. Suta Ugracravas recited it a second time at the sacrifice of f au- naka. The narratives of the Mahabhiirata and Ramayana are continued by the Puranas, which are of a much later date, and which arc written in the interest of religious sects subsequently developed ; they must therefore be spoken of 428 TOL. ix. 15 after an account of the earliest forms of the religion of India. The Rig-Veda states in sev- eral passages that the gods are 33 in number, though according to its own showing this num- ber is far too small. There are three classes of gods : of the heavens, the air, and the earth. The separation of the heavens and the.air or atmosphere is based on a distinction between light and air. The home of the gods of light is beyond those of the air. Light is not con- sidered as dependent on the solar body, but as an independent and eternal force. The domain of the gods of the air lies therefore between the earth and the source of light, and their main office is to provide a free passage for the light and rain which the gods furthest off wish to pour upon the earth. The Hindoo idea of what is divine seems to attach itself to that of light. The word for god is deva, which comes from the root div, meaning to shine or glitter. Surya is the principal godhead in heaven, Vayu or Indra of the air, and Agni of the earth. The gods of heaven never ap- pear as sensual and mythological as those of the other two spheres. There are some whose symbol of divinity is not limited to a single object of nature ; such is Aditi, who is either a god or a goddess, and whose sons are the Adityas. This divinity is rarely mentioned in the older Vedas as a personification, but gen- erally as the abstract idea of the eternal and infinite. The sons of Aditi are Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga, Daksha, and Anca ; but in some instances as many as seven, eight, and even twelve Adityas are mentioned. Without the distinction being always clearly maintained, it seems that Mitra is the heavenly light of the day, and Varuna of the night. The latter sometimes appears as the lord of all three re- gions. The sun has several names. Surya is the usual designation, though Savitri also oc- curs frequently in the Vedas, but he is gener- ally coupled only with the golden and glorious attributes of the sun. Gods of heaven often represent only special phenomena of light. The Acvin are a problematical pair, gods of the earliest daylight. Very circumstantial stories are told of the wonders they have done in heal- ing and saving. Ushas, the dawn, is the beau- tiful virgin who opens the gate of heaven, chases away the night, and invigorates man and beast. The beneficent effects of solar light are represented by Pushan. He protects and multiplies all that man owns, guides him on his journeys, protects him against robbers and thieves, and directs departed souls. His chariot is drawn by goats, and he carries a goad. He is sometimes invoked in conjunction with Indra, but has little in common with the gods of the sphere of the air. Vishnu must also be reck- oned as a sun god. His name is seldom men- tioned in the Vedas. He has passed through the whole universe with only three steps, and has taken his domicile near Indra. He has given the earth to man, the descendant of Manu, as his inheritance. The unbroken order