466 ITALY (LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE) and in the early part of the 1 9th century the natural sciences were advanced by four illustri- ous savants, who were nearly contemporary, Volta, Galvani, Scarpa, and Spallanzani. The discussions of Galvani and Volta concerning their new discoveries in electricity divided the scientific men of Europe into two factions, and the poets followed their example. Scarpa, a learned disciple of Morgagni, reduced anato- my to a positive science. Spallanzani wrote on physics and physiology in a style worthy of one who declared philosophy itself imperfect unless its principles were elegantly expressed. Astro- nomical science was represented by Piazzi, Ori- ani, Cagnoli, and Plana ; medical science by Ra- sori ; natural science by Gene ; geography by Balbi; and jurisprudence by Cannignani and Nicolini of Naples. Later De Vico and Donati obtained a reputation as astronomical discov- erers, and Pianciani as a physicist. Later still Schiapparelli, Cappocci, and De Gasparis ren- dered great service to astronomy ; and among living scientists Secchi and Respighi occupy an eminent place. With them must be mentioned the geographers Marmocchi and De Luca, the naturalists Simonda and De Filippi, the chem- ist Piria, the physicists Melloni, Marianini, and Matteucci, and the historian of science Libri. Eanalli has also published a history of the fine arts ; and a rich source of information in ancient and modern political and natural history and ge- ography of Italy is found in a series now pub- lishing under the general title of IS Italia, of which 20 volumes are already issued (1874). In general literature during the first half of the century Gioja and Romagnosi treated philoso- phical questions and the economical and politi- cal sciences, the Filosofia della statistica being the principal work of the former, and the Ge- nesi del diritto penale of the latter. Manzoni (1784-1873) produced new models of lyric verse, and examples of historical dramas and novels in his AdelcJii, II conte di Carmagnola, and / promessi sposi. To the modified classical school of Monti belong the dramas of Silvio Pellico (1789-1854), chiefly known by his Francesco, da Rimini and Le mie prigioni, and those of Nic- colini, often founded on the history of his coun- try, and strongly marked by patriotic feeling. The example of Sir Walter Scott in the produc- tion of historical romances had many followers in Italy. / promessi sposi of Manzoni (1827) was succeeded by the Monaca di Monza, Luisa Strozzi^ and II conte TTgolino della Gherardesca of Rosini ; the Margherita Pmterla of Cesare Can til; the Marco Visconti of Grossi; the Et- tore Fieramosca, and Nicold de* Lapi of Massi- mo d'Azeglio (1798-1866); and the Battaglia di Beneve,nto, Assedio di Firenze, Isabella Or- sini, and Beatrice Cenci of Guerrazzi (died in 1873). Italy received with enthusiasm these romantic delineations from her ancient history. The romance entitled Famiglia (1850), by Ber- sezio, is one of the best late Italian novels. The Dr. Antonio of Ruffini is esteemed for its pic- tures of Italian scenery. Accomplished women have taken a considerable part in recent Ital- ian literature. The Morte di Adonc of Teresa Bandettini was followed by the learned philo- sophical and religious poems of Diodata Saluz- zo, with which she intermingled slight lyrical pieces. Cecilia de Luna Folliero wrote on the education of girls and the moral influence of music. Giustina Rinier Michiel celebrated in song the festive days and memorable events of Venice. Isabella Teotoehi Albrizzi wrote a graceful and truthful biography of Canova. The work of the Signora Ferucci on the edu- cation of girls received the encomiums of Gio- berti and other distinguished thinkers. Other female authors are Lucrezia Marinella, Sabina Rasori, Silvia Curtoni Verza, Costanza Mos- cheni, and Leonora Fonseca Pimentel. In philosophy, the names of Gioja and Romagnosi were succeeded by that of Pasquale Borelli (Lallebasche), the author of an introduction to philosophy, and of works on the nature and genesis of thought, in which he opposed the empiricism of Romagnosi. Cardinal Gerdil (1718-1802) was the author of numerous re- markable works on philosophy, theology, and mathematical and physical science. Pasquale Galuppi (1770-1846), in elaborate works, com- bated the philosophical tendencies of the 18th century by doctrines founded on the philoso- phy of the fathers of the church. He was a student of the German philosophers, and one of his most interesting works was on the changes of modern philosophy from Descartes to Kant. Contemporary philosophy has had a large number of representatives in Italy. Fore- most in celebrity was Gioberti (1801-'52), whose philosophical theory was so constructed as to suit itself to the national aspirations of It- aly ; he is also known as the author of Del pri- mato morale e civile degli Italiani, 11 Gesuiia moderno, and Del rinnovamento citile d 1 Italic. Next to Gioberti were Cardinal Rosmini-Ser- bati (died in 1855), whose ontological theory has met with even less favor than Gioberti's, and Mamiani, the author of Einnmamento delV antica Jilosojia italiann. Ausonio Franchi is diametrically opposed to all these philosophers. He places the criterion of truth in the individ- ual reason and feeling, both corresponding to the two most intellectual spheres of the mind, philosophy and religion. According to him, the philosophy of Italy is scholasticism, which is the negation of reason, and its religion Catholicism, the negation of liberty. Thus he is antagonistic to Tommaseo, the representative of the spirit- ualist and religious schools. Greek philosophy is represented by Centofanti, and philosophical skepticism by Giuseppe Ferrari, the author of Filosofia della rivoluzione and Corso di lezioni sugli serittori politici italiani (1862-'3) ; and Hegelianism by the Neapolitan Vera, To the school of Franchi belong Alfonso Testa and Car- lo Cattaneo. The Calcolo di probal/ilitd dei sen- timentiumani (1855) of Mastriani is an attempt to found philosophy on a physiological basis. Giordan! may be considered as the founder of
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