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SOCIETIES 143 In 1870 the number of loan or credit banks in Germany was estimated at 2,000, and numer- ous associations of a similar nature are now established in Russia, Denmark, Italy, France, and England. Therfe is in Germany a politi- caV party of socialists called Socialdemolcraten, another development of the same movement which produced the international association, mainly composed of workingmen and their friends. This party aims to establish complete liberty, equality, and fraternity, by uniting all the working classes in associations, and secu- ring to all the same rights and opportunities to work; there are to be no favored classes or individuals, and the whole world is to form one great solidarity. The so-called Katheder- socialisten are not socialists in the ordinary sense of the word, but a school of political economy opposing the free traders. See, be- sides the works named in the biographies of the principal socialists, Stein, Der Socialismus und Communismus des Tieutigen Frankreich (Leipsic, 1844), and GescJiichte der socialen Bewegung in Frankreich (3 vols., Leipsic, 1849-'51); Bluntschli, Die Communisten in der Schweiz (Zurich, 1843); Schiiffle, Kapita- lismus und Socialismus (Tubingen, 1870 ; Eng- lish translation by Kaufmann, London, 1875) ; Noyes, " History of American Socialisms " (Philadelphia, 1870); Duhring, Kritische Ge- schichte der National- Oekonomie und des So- cialismiLs (Berlin, 1871); Le Play, Z' Organisa- tion du travail (Paris, 1871), and La reforme sociale . en France (Paris, 1872) ; Nordhoff, " The Communistic Societies of the United States" (New York, 1875); and Holyoake, " History of Cooperation" (London, 1875). SOCIETIES, Literary and Scientific. The origin of this distinctive title for private intellectual associations is as ancient as that of academies. (See ACADEMY.) Societies existed in antiqui- ty and in the middle ages, and in Germany and the Netherlands they acquired importance in the 15th century by promoting classical cul- ture. The associations or corporations of the Meistersingers flourished till the 16th century. The 17th century witnessed the formation of .bodies in Germany for the improvement of the language, after the model of the Florentine La Crusca and the French academy, and the rise and progress of scientific societies, espe- cially of the "Royal Society of London," incor- porated in 1663 for the investigation and ad- vancement of physical science. Many impor- tant societies were formed in Great Britain in the 18th century, including the " Society of Antiquaries" (London, 1717), the "Royal Society of Dublin" (1731), "Royal Society of Edinburgh" (1783), "Medical" (London, 1773), and "Linnsean" (1788); and in 1800 sprang up in London the. " Royal Institu- tion of Great Britain," celebrated for chemical and other lectures. (See LONDON, vol. x., pp. 604-'5.) The subsequent increase of learned bodies was still more rapid. The United King- dom now has societies for almost all branches 750 VOL. xv. 10 of science, letters, learning, and art ; and with a view of establishing greater unity, the royal society of London, and the astronomical, geo- logical, Linntean, and chemical societies, are to meet, after the completion of the palace of learning in the new Burlington house, in the same building, which is also to contain their extensive libraries, collections, and reading rooms. Most remarkable for stimulating many of the important discoveries of the century are the " Geological Society " (1807) and the " Roy- al Geographical Society" (1830). Those en- gaged in antiquarian and archaological re- searches also display great vigor ; and special bodies, as for instance those relating to explora- tions in Palestine, have achieved signal results. Among other peculiarly valuable institutions are the "Royal Astronomical Society " (1820), which is one of the most important of the kind ; the " Statistical Society " (1834), which throws much light upon the national resources; and the " Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland " (1823), with branches in Bom- bay, Madras, Hong Kong, and elsewhere. The " Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal," at Calcutta, dates from 1784. There are learned societies in other parts of the East, in Canada, Austra- lia, and in almost every important part of the British empire; and all the leading societies publish the results of their labors. The most important English perambulatory body is the " British Association for the Advancement of Science," founded in 1831. (See ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.) The " National Association for the Promotion of Social Science " held its first public meeting at Birmingham, Oct. 12, 1857, under the presidency of Lord Brougham. It embraced originally the five departments of ju- risprudence, education, punishment and refor- mation, public health, and social economy ; and a sixth department relating to trade and inter- national law was added in 1860. The annual meetings are held at a different place each year, and are chiefly occupied in reading dis- quisitions and in discussions. The continent of Europe emulates England in encouraging explorations, and this is especially the case with the geographical societies of Berlin, St. Petersburg, and Vienna, and the " Institute " at Gotha. In France and Italy the number of societies is diminished by the omnipotence of the academies. The former country, however, has several of importance, especially the so- ciete geograpMque of Paris, which publishes a celebrated monthly Bulletin, and the societe asiatique, which has called into existence ori- ental societies in Germany and England. In the latter part of last century Germany had a poets' union (Gdttinger Dichterbund or Hain- ~bund) among its societies, with Klopstock at its head. In the pre'sent century it has initia- ted scientific congresses and other associations in the interest of political and social science, and the country abounds with societies de- voted to every branch of knowledge, art, and industry. Among the oldest is the Wissen-