rents wholly to change the climate of western Europe. Such an arrange- ment would be effected by the submer- gence of the Isthmus of Panama and adjacent country, allowing the equa- torial current to pass into the Pacific. The gale factory of the western Atlantic would then be greatly reduced.
The area south of the Cape of Good Hope is another birthplace of great cyclonic systems, the warm Agulhas Current meeting colder water moving up from the Polar regions ; but in the Southern Ocean the conditions of the distribution of land are different, and these systems sweep round and round the world, only catching and affecting the south part of Tasmania, New Zealand, and Patagonia.
MOVEMENTS OF THE LOWER STRATA OF WATER
In 1894 I spoke of the movements of the lower strata of water in the sea as a subject on which we were only beginning to get a little light. Since that year we have learnt a little more. It is a common idea that at the bottom of the sea all is still ; but this is a mistake, even for the deepest parts, for the tidal influence reaches to the bottom and keeps every particle in motion, though such motion is quiet and slow.
Near the shore, however, though still in deep water, the movement may be considerably increased. Cases have occurred in late years where submarine cables have broken several hundred fathoms deep, and when picked up for repair it has been found that the iron wire covering has been literally rubbed away as by a file. This can only be the result of an undercurrent along the bot- tom moving the cable to and fro. Such a current might be caused by a submarine spring, for there is no doubt that much fresh water finds its way into the ocean in this fashion, but it is more probably generally an effect of acceleration of the tidal movement due to the rising slope of the continent. In connection with this, further facts have come to light in the course of recent marine surveys. Many isolated shoal spots in the great oceans have figured in our charts, the results of reports by passing sailors who have said they have seen breakers in fine weather.
Such places are the terror of seamen, and it is part of the duty of surveying ships to verify or disprove them. Very much has been done in the last eighteen years, with the result that the majority of them have, as dangers, disappeared. In many cases, however, a bank has been found, deep in the ordinary ac- ceptation of the word, but much less deep than the surrounding sea — solitary ridges, in fact, rising from the ocean floor. Frequently, in examining these banks in search of shoaler spots, breakers have been reported and recognized as such on board the surveying ship from a distance, but on approach they have proved to be small overcurls caused by tide ripplings, and the depth of water has proved to be several hundred fathoms. These ripplings are clearly caused by the small tidal motion in the deep water, generally in these cases of more than 2,000 fathoms, meeting the slope of the submerged mountain range, being con- centrated and accelerated until the water finally flows up the top of the slope as a definite current, and taking the line of least resistance, that to the surface, makes itself visible in the shape which we are accustomed to associate with com- paratively shallow water.
These cases form remarkable instances of the manner in which extensive motion of water may arise from very small be- ginnings.
An observation I was anxious to make in 1894 has been successfully carried out since. This was to ascertain whether there was any permanent undercurrent in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb due to more water being forced through the straits on the surface by the persistent
