ARABIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The Arabic langiuige furiiis u brauth of the South-Semitic tongues, aud with the excep tion of Aramaic (q.v.) is the only Semitic speech •which deserves to be called a living tongue. It is still spoken in Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia. Arabia, Egypt, northern Africa, and Malta, and it is more or less understood in all countries into v.hich Mohammedanism has penetrated. We may distinguish between the so-called (a) classical Arabic of the old poets, the Koran and the schools; (b) the Middle-Arabic of the post- classical period; and (c) Modern Arabic, which is subdivided into the following chief dialects; ( 1 ) of Syria and Palestine ; ( 2 ) of Egj-pt ; ( 3 ) of Mesopotamia; (4) of Oman and Zanzibar; ( )) of Tunis, Morocco and Algiers; (0) of JIalta; and (7) the Mehri in Soutli Arabia, the ancient form of which is preserved in the Minsean and Saba>an inscriptions {see Mi.n.eans: S.'^B.E.ITCS) . The distinguishing features of the language are an exceedingly extensive vocabulary and complicated grammatical forms. The Ara- bic alphabet, which is derived through the Naba- tiean(see X.bat.eaxs) from the ancient Aramaic script, consists of twenty-eight characters, of which eleven, however, are merely distinguished by diacritical points placed above or beneath, so tiiat there are only seventeen di^;tinct characters used. The direction of the writing is from right to left.
Arabic literature may be broadly divided into two periods, the first containing the Arabic na- tional literature, extending to the close of the Onimiad dynasty, c.7.50 a.d., and the second con- taining the Islamic literature in Arabic. In ths second period four svdidivisions may be noted : (a) C.750 to c. 1000, when literary activity reached its height; (b) c.1U00-c.12.j8, the post-classical period; (c) c. 1258-1517. the period of decline and decay; and (d) 1517 to the present time. Noth- ing has survived earlier than the time of Mo- hannned except in verse, in which the pre-Islaniic Arabs attained a high degree of proficienc.^'. They had poetical tournaments, and the poets vied witn each other_at such annual fairs as that held at Okaz (Ar., 'Ukas) , near Mecca. The subjects treated were tribal strifes, vengeance, love, friendship, and hospitality. The most cclebrali>d of these are those called Mii'alhil.iit, comprising the ])oems of Amiu al-Kais, Tarafah, Zuhair, La- bid, Anir ibn Kulthum, Antarah and al-Harith, though, according to some collectors, Xabighah and Aslia take the place of the last two. Frag- ments of the prodttctions of mtn-e than two hun- dred jjre-Islamic poets, among vhom were Jews
- inrl Christifius. were collected in the tenth cen-
tury. The largest collections are the Hamdsnh 01 Abu Taminam (S40); the Kitiih (iI-Agliiinl (Book of Songs) of Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (S07), and the Janiharat asli'Or nl-'Arnh of Abu Zaid (tenth century). A new period began with ilohammed (571-632). The Koran, which gave birth to a religion and which founded the greatest politico-religious system of the Middle Ages, soon dominated all branches of intellectual activity. The earliest products of this domina- tion were grammar and lexicography, the neces- sary instruments for the expsjesis of the Koran. Schools were founded in Basra. C'ufa. and Bag- dad, where the sciences were studied, especially by Persian Mohammedans. Such a one was the first grammarian of Basra. Abd al-Rahman ibn Hormuzd (c.730). Among the noteworthy gram- marians and lexicographers may be mentioned: Abu al-Walid al-Duali (eighth century), the in- ventor of the diacritical points; al-Khalil, the founder of Arabic metrics and the author of the lirst Arabic lexicon, KituO ul-'M»; Sibawai'.ii (7!Hi), author of an extensive gr:immar (trans- lated into Gernum by Jahn, Berlin, 1S'J4) ; Ibn Duraid (d,"J34), author of the lexicon al-Jain- Iturah ; Ismail ibn Abbad ;il-Sahib (d.9!J5). author of the lexicon al-Muhlt; ibn Mukarram (d.l311), author of an extensive lexicon. Lisfni. ul-'Arab; al-Zamakhshari (d.ll43), author of a grammar al-Miifasml, and a lexicon .-lssa.s; and ibn Malik (d.l273), who wrote a grammar in one thousand verses under the title Kitiib al- AlfUjuh.
As all Mohammedan philosophy, theology, law, and statecraft is derived primarily from the Koran, its interpretation became the object of discussion at a very early period. Hence an immense literature of commentaries and super- commentaries grew u]), only the most important of which can be mentioned; those by al-Tabari (d.023), al-Hasan al-N'isaburi (d.ioio), ilo- hainnied al-Kurtubi (d.l272), of al-Zamakhshari (d.ll43), of Fakhr al-Din Pvazi (d.l209), of al- Baidawi {d.l280), and Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d.1505). But .Mohannnedanisin, as a sj'stem, rests as much U]X>n tlie oral as u])on the written law. The sayings and doings of jlohammed and his immediate followers form the science of the Hadith or traditions, which vary both as to value and authenticity. Around these there has also grown up a large literature; the three great col- lections of such traditions were made by al-Bu- khaxi ( d.870 ) .Muslim ( S74 ) .and al-Tirmidhi ( 892 ) . As early as the end of the seventh century a school of Mohammedan iuris])rudcnce as founded in Medina by Abd Allah ibn Masud and Abd Allah ibn Abbas. Its decisions were col- lected toward the end of the eighth century by the distinguished jurist Malik ibn Anas, whose al-Muiratta' became the code for the Hejaz. Tunis, Algeria, and Jlorocco. There are three other recognized codes, of Abu Hanifah (q.v.), of INIo- hammed al-Shatii (d.S20) . and of Ahmad ibuHaii- bal (d.855). Other codes, to the numl)er of seven- ty-two. are prescribed as heretical. These have produced an extensive literature of comment,aries and pandects, which has not exhausted itself in our o«Ti days.
The activity of the ^Mohammedans was not confined to philological and theological studies. With the accession of the Abbassides a new field was opened by the introduction of foreign civilizations. I^earned men were invited from other countries and renuineratcd in a princely manner. The works of Greek, Syriac, Old-Persian, and Indian writers were translated into Arabic. Schools of philosophy were founded at Bagdad, Cordova, Cairo, etc., where the writings of Aristotle. Plato, and the Alexandrine philosophers were expounded and commented u]ion. Dogmas, hitherto regarded as sacred, were freely discussed and rejected. (See Mutazilites.) From these schools issued the philosophers al-Kindi (eiehth century). al-Farahi (900). Ibn Sina (Aviccnna 980-1037). al-f!hazzali (1111). Ibn Badi;ih (1138), Ibn Tifail (d.llSo), and Ibn Poshd( Averroes, 1153-98), whose works, subsequently translated into Latin, were studied for many centuries in European universities.
