(New York, 1899), which gives the point of view of a progressive Filipino; Sawyer, The Inhabitants of the Philippines (London, 1900), a historical study of the elements that make up the population of the islands; Buel, Wright, etc., Our Late Wars: Spain and Our New Possessions (Washington, 1900); Robinson, The Philippines: The War and the People (New York, 1901); Schurman, Philippine Affairs: A Retrospect and an Outlook (New York, 1902), an account of the proceedings of the first American Commission; U. S. Philippine Commission, Report to the President (4 vols., Washington, 1900-1901); Blair and Robertson, Philippine Islands, 1493-1893, an exhaustive work on the early history, compiled from original documents, to be in 55 vols. (Cleveland, Ohio, 1903 et seq). On special periods of the history, consult for conquest and first half century, A. de Morga, The Philippine Islands, trans., Hákluyt Society (London, 1868); for the eighteenth century, Le Gentil, Voyage dans les mers de l'Inde (Paris, 1781). For the first half of the nineteenth century, Comyn, Memoria sobre el estado de Filipinas (Madrid, 1820; Manila, 1877; trans. by Walton, London, 1821); Sinibaldo de Mas, Informe sobre el Estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842 (Madrid, 1842); Buzeta and Bravo, Diccionario geográfico, estadistico, histórico de las Islas Filipinas (Madrid, 1850); Bowring, A Visit to the Philippine Islands (London, 1859). The novels of José Rizal, the Filipino patriot, illustrate the social conditions prior to 1896. Noli me Tangere (Berlin, 1856) appears in English somewhat condensed in two editions—An Eagle Flight (New York, 1901), and Friars and Filipinos, trans. by Gannett (New York, 1902). It was translated into French as Au pays des Moines (Paris, 1899). Other works on miscellaneous subjects are: Semper, Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen (Leipzig, 1868-1901); Blumentritt, “Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen,” in Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft 67 (Gotha, 1882); Worcester, The Philippine Islands and Their People (New York, 1898); Stevens, Yesterdays in the Philippines (London, 1890); Tornow, “The Economic Condition of the Philippines,” in National Geographic Magazine, vol. x. (Washington, 1899); Morris, Our Island Empire (Philadelphia, 1899); Millet, The Expedition to the Philippines (New York, 1899); Sonnichsen, Ten Months a Captive Among Filipinos (New York, 1901); and for bibliography, Josephson, “Bibliographies of the Philippine Islands,” Bulletin of Bibliography, vol. ii (Boston, 1899). For the ethnology, consult: Blumentritt, “List of the Native Tribes of the Philippines, etc.,” in Smithsonian Report (Washington, 1901); Meyer, “Die Philippinen,” in Ethnographisches Museum, vol. viii. (Dresden, 1890); Brinton, “The Peoples of the Philippines,” American Anthropologist, vol. xi. (New York, 1898), which has a bibliography; Meyer and Schadenburg, Album von Philippinen-Typen (Dresden, 1891); id., “Die Philippinen,” and id., “Negritos,” Königlich-Ethnographisches Museum zu Dresden (Dresden, 1893).
PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES. The number of languages spoken in the Philippine Islands is variously estimated as from about 25 to over 50. These languages may be considered under two heads: (1) the languages of the Negritos, probably the remnants of the aboriginal population who live in scattered tribes in the interior of most of the large islands; (2) the languages of the various tribes of Malay race which constitute the bulk of the population (Christian, Mohammedan, and pagan).
About the idioms of the Negritos very little is known, but they are apparently similar to the Malay dialects. This similarity, however, is perhaps to be explained as due to the influence of the languages of the surrounding Malay tribes, especially as, according to Spanish authorities, the Negrito languages are of monosyllabic structure, and entirely different from the languages of the Malays.
The idioms of the Malay tribes form a closely connected group of tongues which constitute a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian family of speech. The principal languages of the Christian tribes arc: Batan (Batan and Babuyan islands, north of Luzon), Ibanag (North Luzon), Ilocan (Northwest Luzon), Pampango (Central Luzon), Pangasinan (West Luzon), Tino (language of the Zambals, West Luzon), Tagalog (Manila, Middle Luzon, coast of Mindoro), Bikol (South Luzon), Bisayan (spoken in various dialects in the Bisayan Islands, and North and East Mindanao). The principal languages of the Mohammedan tribes are the Sulu of the Sulu subarchipelago and the coasts of Palawan, and the Magindanao of Southwest Mindanao. The idioms of the pagan tribes which inhabit the mountain districts of Northern Luzon, a large part of Mindanao, and the interior of Mindoro, Palawan, and the western Bisayan Islands, are very numerous, but little known. Among the best known are the Gaddan and Isinay of Luzon, and the Tiruray and Bagobo of Mindanao. A number of the Philippine languages, such as Tagalog and Bisayan, have reached a high state of development, and are well suited for literary use.
The vocabularies of the Philippine languages contain several foreign elements. In common with other languages of the Malay branch of the Malayo-Polynesian family, many of the Philippine dialects have borrowed a number of Sanskrit words. The languages of the Christian tribes also contain a number of Spanish words, those of the Mohammedan tribes a number of Arabic words.
The alphabets in which the native languages were or are written are also due to these foreign influences. The native alphabets, which are no longer used except by the Mangians of Mindoro and the Tagbanuas of Palawan, were probably derived from India. The Mohammedan tribes of the south now use the Arabic alphabet with some additional signs, while the languages of the Christian tribes are written in the Roman alphabet conformed to the peculiarities of Spanish orthography.
The sounds of the Philippine languages are in the main similar to those of English. All the languages, however, possess a peculiar guttural-nasal sound (written ng̃) distinct from the ordinary guttural-nasal ng as in Eng. sing. In some of the languages, as in Tagalog and Bisayan, there is a peculiar r-sound, due to a phonetic modification of d.
The roots of these languages are for the most part dissyllabic. They may be used uncombined as nouns or adverbs, but only rarely as verbs. Derivation is accomplished by means of a great variety of particles, which are usually employed as prefixes, though there are a few suffixes and infixes. So prominent a characteristic is this use
