Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 17.djvu/269

ROMANES. 2i5 ROMANESQUE ART. at Kingston, Canada. He was cJuoatcd in Eng- land, France, Germany, and Italy, graduating fruni Gonville and Cains College, Cambridge, in 1S70, with li/mors in natural -science. In 1875 and again in 1881 be was Croonian lecturer to the Royal Society, to which he was elected to membership in 1879. Later he became Fullerian professor of physiology in the Royal Institution of London and Rosebery lecturer on natural his- tory in the LUiiversity of Edinburgh. He also served the Linna?an Society as its zoological secre- tary. Besides publishing a series of monogra])hs on the iledusa, Echinoderms, etc., he devoted himself to extending the principles of evolution in the field of psychology, having become an in- timate friend of Charles Darwin while in Cam- bridge. His chief works are: A Candid Exainina- lion of Theism (1878); Animal Intelligence ("International Scientific Series," xliv., 1881): Charles Danrin: Uis Life and Character (1882) ; The Scientific Eeidence of Organic Eioliilion (1882); Mental Eeolution in Animals, ii-ith a Posthumous Essai/ on Instinct hy Charles Daricin (1883); Jelly-fish, iStar-fish, and Sea Urchins ("International Scientific Scries." xlix., 1885) ; Mental Evolution in Man: Origin of Human Faculty (1888) ; Darwin and After Danrin: An Exposition of the Dariciniati Theoinj and a Dis- cussion of Post-Duririnian Questions (1892-07) ; An Examination of ^¥eisman7lism- (1893); Thour/hts on Religion (1895) ; Mind and Motion and Monism (189(5). Consult The Life and Let- ters of George John Romanes, written and Edited hy His ^yife (London, 1898), ROMANESQUE ART (Fr, romanesque. from Sp. romancsco, from ilL. liomaniscus, Roman, from Lat. Homanus, Roman, from Roma, Rome). A genera! name for the art that flourished in Europe during the period of fermentation before the definite constitution of nationalities, from about A.D. 800 to 1200, In general it is re- markable only for its architecture, which over- shadows all other branches. Sculpture and painting revive, but are still in their infancy; goldsmith work, illumination, and ivory-carving are practiced with better success. Except in Italy, the art of this period is chiefly monastic. The great free cities in Italy and the Imperial and feudal houses of Cerniany were the only great stimuli to art production besides the mon- asteries themselves. The first two centuries of this age were dormant and preparatory, the last two alone were productive, Akciiitectl'RE. The architecture of this period is called by the names of various schools, which are merely topographical variations of the gen- eral style, e,g,.tiie Lombard (q.v, ) in Northern Italy, the Rhenish in Germany, the Saxon and Norman (q,v, ) in England, the Provencal and Norman in France, The works of each may be divided into two groups according as its build- ings were unvaulted or vaulted. The unvaulted type was the earlier, and in some sections con- tinued until the end; the vaulted type was an innovation after a,d. 1000, and gradually spread over many of the most progressive regions and pre- pared the way for the ideal vaulted style — the Gothic. Up to A.D. 1000 the style in some re- gions was practically a continuation of early Christian art, as in the basilican churches of Rome, but certain new elements were introduced in the north, among which the chief were the development of the cruciform |dan with elongated choir; doulile choirs, of(en raised; <loublc tran- sept ; sul)stitutiou of pier.'* for colunni.s or alter- nation of the two crypts; and bcll-towcr.s as part of the plan. These innovations alTeoted the Hchcine nnd composition rather than the style of construction or ornamentation. An Eastern iiillnence i.i seen in a number of circular or polygonal domed diurchcs, among which the Cathedral of Charlc- nuigne at Aix-la-Cliapelle is the masterpiece. The systematic and elaborate planning of the build- ings of a great monastic estal)li>hmiMit Ixdnngs to this ]H'riod, as is shown at Saint (iail (i|.v,). Tile church at Michclstadt is an example of the oldong plan. Saint Michael at Ilildesheim ( 1003- 13) brings ns to the threshold of tin- npt stage, when vaulting began to be substituted for wooden ceilings. Thus far there had been no develop- ment of sculptural ornament or moldings; tlic style was jierfectly plain. In Italy, from which the earlier builders in the north of Europe had originally come, the clianges were hardly felt at all, and examples of timber-roofed churches scat- tered from one end of Italy to the other show the continued ]nevaleiice until long after A.n. 1000 of the plain basilical plan without tran- sept or choir, but with occasional use of the crypt (q.v.), a feature developed in the monastic churches of the north. The renovated civilization of the eleventh cen- tury created an architecture worthy of standing by the side of the new scholastic theology. of tiie revived faith that led to the Crusades, and of the reconstituted organisms of Church and State. It was natural that the free republics of Italy should lead in the field ; their rivals were the Rlienish and Saxon cities of the new German Empire and the Romance cities of I'rovence and the rest of Southern France. The eleventh and twelfth centuries were marked by extraor- dinary creative activity in the development of new "types of monastic buildings (see Monas- tery) and churches, but also in the creation of entirely new classes of buildings, such as feudal castles (q.v.). and artistic city houses. The monastic artists were soon rivaled by the lay guilds. The impression made by a study of Romanesque monuments throughout Europe is of unequaled variety, inventiveness, and boldness in seeking unconveutioiial solution of architec- tural problems. In the absence of organized na- tional life, each province developed its special style. Certain general characteristics are, how- ever, evident, 'llie introduction of vaulting led to the general use of heavy walls in place of the thin walls that had sulliced for wooden roofs. Doors and windows had to be siilayed and deco- rated with moldings, carving, and sculptures. which became increasingly rii-h and varied. The proportions were entirely changed by the use nf the vault; the nave was necessarily narrower and was raised higher in ord<-r to give room for windows under the base line of the vault . Ilenvy jiiers replaced columns and were membered with engaged shafts corresponding to the vaulting ribs and pier arches. Thus beginning about A.n. 1000 with plain .square piers and plain openings, with very heavy walls (as at Vignory in France with its wooden roof), we proceed through progressive stages tm- til in the twelfth century we get to the richness of Saint Servin at Toulouse and the Abbey of