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EOMANESQUE ART. 248 ROMANESQUE ART. number of iiionnstcries — especially Cistercian — such as Rievaiilx Fountains, Kirkstall, Waltham, Konisey, aiul ilalmsbury. The characteristics of this style are heavy walls and piers, rich details, length and narrowness of plan, inability to vault wide spaces, lack of figured sculpture, constant use of geometric and schematic ornament, and use of both round and grouped piers. The portals are especially rich and deeply recessed, and their most characteristic ornaments are in the zigzag anil beak molding. The naves are all covered with wooden roofs, but the aisles are often groin- vaulted. Especial prominence was given to the triforia, which form lofty galleries over the aisles. Few of the original facades remain for comparison with contemporary Continental ex- amples. Of all phases of the Romanesque the Norman is the heaviest, makes the least use of vaulting (except the Tuscan), and is the least well composed, though often impressive. Toward the close of the twelfth centurj- the heaviness diminishes, and certain parts of Ely and Norwich are charmingly smimetrical. Spain. The Spanish Romanesque style com- menced early in the ninth centiiry under King Alfonso II, of Asturias, with the renewed life of Christian Spain. The new capital, Oviedo (San Tirso, San .Julian), and the neighboring Naranco (Santa ilaria, San Miguel) show a mixture of early Christian and Byzantine influences (c.800-8.501 , as do later churches at Valdedios, Priesca, and Barcelona. Sloorish in- fluence also becomes prominent. Yith the eleventh century the south of France inspires the Spanish school in its further revival. The in- creased prosperity of the Christian cities of Spain, to many of which French bishops were appointed, caused a revival in cathedral archi- tecture, which adopted the vault in all its forms, the tvmneled being used ordinarily for the nave, the groined for the aisles. San Isidoro at Leon, the old Cathedral of Salamanca, that of Zamora, the church at Toro, and San lago at Compostella are characteristic examples, Salamanca being the earliest and San lago the most consummate work. These Spanish churches are grandiose and equal to the foremost French buildings, even surpassing them in some features, such as the effective dome .over the intersection of Compostella. Examples of tunnel-vaulted hall-churches are at Gerona, Huesca, and Segovia, similar to those of Prov- ence and Languedoc. The most important groin- vaulted churches are Santa Maria at Tudela and the cathedrals of Tarragona and L^rida, remark- able for unity of plan, solidity of construction, and beauty of detail. They bear great similarity to the school of Anjou. San Vicente at Avila has the most interesting figured sculptures on its facade and an exceptionally beautiful triforium gallery. The Spanish school reaches its most glorious period when the time approaches, toward 1200, for France to give her the Gothic as she had the Romanesque. SCL'LPTUBE. In the minor forms of sculpture. Byzantine and early Christian models were generally fol- lowed during the Romanesque epoch ( see Byz.x- TINE Art), the awakening of monumental sculp- ture having Ijeen due to the demand for archi- tectural decoration. Fr. ce. Such was particularly the case dur- ing the Carolingian revival in France and Ger- many. In the south of France, however, stone sculpture on a larger scale was used in connec- tion with church architecture. The facades were crowded with statues, often representing a larger composition ; statues even took the place of col- umns in the cloisters. Technically inferior to those of the succeeding Gothic period, they were more characteristic and individual. The'school of Provence was dignified and quiet in character, concealing technical deficiencies by rich decora- tion; that of Burgund}'. more finished in tech- nique, more fanciful and inventive, but gro- tesque and dramatic; that of Toulouse, more finished and studied. A curious combination of Carolingian and Byzantine influence is shown by the school which in the first half of the twelfth century created the fine facade of AngoulOmc, the entire sculptures of which form one com- position, a "Last Judgment," and the rich portal of Cahors. Gekma>'T. During the ninth century carving in ivory, after early Christian and Byzantine models, was extensively practiced. An impor- tant centre was the Monastery of Saint Gall, where Tutilo was the chief master. Foreign in- fluence rather increased under the Othos, being promoted by their frequent expeditions to Rome, and the marriage of Otho III. with the Byzantine Princess Theophano. Though ruder than their models, the native workmou display more naturalism and individuality, ilonuraental sculpture did not arise until the eleventh cen- tury, through the instrumentality of Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim. Impressed by the col- unms of Trajan and ilarcus Aurelius at Rome, he erected one of his own at Hildesheim. besides furnishing his own cathedral with bronze doors. His school was especially occupied with articles of church furniture, and invented bronze sepul- chral slabs. Among its most important produc- tions are the portals of the cathedrals at Augs- burg, Verona, and Gnesen, the baptismal font of ilerseburg, and especially the beautiful gold altar front which Henry II. presented to the cathedral at Basel. It.ly. During the twelfth century, in con- nection with facade decoration, a species of Romanesque sculpture originated in Lombardy and Tuscany, which during the thirteenth cen- tury was applied to interior decoration as well. Its technique was rude, the figures being short and coarse, the expression and dramatic action childish, the draperies very primitive. The best work of this school is found in Lombardy. espe- cially in the cathedrals of Modena and Ferrara, in .Saint Zeno, and the Cathedral at Verona. Dur- ing the later twelfth century considerable prog- ress was made by Benedetto Antelami, whose sculptures in the Cathedral of Parma and the neighboring Borgo San Donino show nature study and a sense of form and motion. At Venice Byzantine influence prevailed, but the sculptures of the main portal of Saint Mark, and, in the interior, the angels under the cupola are Roman- esque in character. The Tuscan sculptures are more primitive in character; the revival under Niccola Pisano in the thirteenth century is of sufficient importance for general development to merit treatment in the article Sculpture. PAINTING. Gehmaxt, Mural painting was extensively practiced under the patronage of Charles the Great, but of the decorations which we know existed in the royal palace and in the churches no