Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 17.djvu/413

RUSSIA. 373 RUSSIA. those bodies is the Council of the Empire, a imrely cousuUative assembly established as early as ISOl and consisting of a president and over SO members, exclusive of tile ministers, who are ex-officio members, and four princes of the royal blood. For the dispatch of l)usiness the Council is divided into four sections or departments, each vested with the control respectively of legisla- tion, civil and ecclesiastical administration, linance and commerce, industry and sricnce. liy one or the other of these sections legislative meas- ures are drawn up, the laws interpreted in certain contingencies, the budget preparecl, linancial meas- ures devised, accounts examined. a<lministrative controversies settled, and political questions dis- cussed. Each section has its own president, and ordinarilj- the sittings are separate, but joint meetings are held for certain purposes. Another great body of State through which the Emperor governs is the Senate, which was created by Peter the Great in 1711 and reorganized in 1802. It is divided into six de|iartments or sec- tions. Two of these act as courts of cassation. Their members, like the other Senators, are appointed by the Emperor, but, by reason of their judicial functions, are regarded as irremovalde. Another section is charged with the promulgation and execution of the laws. Other sections divide among themselves the business of supervising the collection of the taxes, the use of the public funds, the preservation of the archives, the ap- pointment of officers, and the maintenance of or- der. As a whole, the Senate is the final supreme court of apjieal in civil and criminal cases for the empire, a supreme administrative court, and a disciplinary tribunal for the trial of public offi- cers. A third administrative body is the Holy Synod, charged with the sui>ervision of ecclesias- tical affairs. It is composed mostly of ecclesias- tics, viz.: The three metropolitans of Saint Pe- tersburg, Moscow, and Kiev, the archbishops of Georgia (Caucasus) and of Poland, and several bishops. There is one lay functionary with the title of Procurator-General, who is also a member. All the members are appointed by the Emperor. The Synod cannot introduce innovations into the Church, but it exercises control over the Church in matters of discipline and superintends its higher administration. Its decisions are made in the name of the Emperor and have no force until approved by liim. The fourth great organ of Im- perial administration is the Council of Jlinisters, which dates from the year 1802. The ministers, thirteen in number, are appointed by the Em- peror, and are responsible to him alone. Besides the Ministry, the Czar has his private Chancel- leries, charged mainly with the administratinii of puldic charities and certain branches of iniblic education, the examination and publication of the laws, and the control of certain branches of the police service. For the government of Poland and Finland spe- cial arrangements are made. In Poland the chief representative, or lieutenant, of the Emperor is the Governor-General, who is assisted by a coun- cil. He is also the president of a deliberative as- sembly, composed of permanent and temporary members, all appointed by the Em])cror. (For the government of Finland, see Finland.) The Rus- eian Empire is divided for administrative pur- poses into governments and provinces and one district. At present there are 90 governments and provinces and one district, (or a li-st of which see table below under Poi'lLATION. The provinces altogether number 18, all of which are in Asia and the Caucasus. Several of the governments are united under the rule of ii Governor-(ieiieral. In each single guvernnient there are a deliberative assembly and u civil gov- ernor, while ill a number there "is al.so ii military governor. Each government is divided into ills- tricts numbering from 5 to 15. In each district is also a delilierative assembly (Zemstvo) elect- eil liy three classes of voters, viz. proprietors, burgliers, and inhabitants of the rural coininuiies who are 25 j'ears of age and possess a certain amount of property, or who are engaged in busi- nesses of a certain importance. Members of the district as.seiiiblies are chosen for three years and receive no compensation. Their duties include the construction of puldic works, adiiiinisl ration of charity, public health, public ediualion. and other matters of local cdiicern. The administra- tion of the municipalities is vested in a mayor {(jiilora) and an elected council or deliberative assembly (Diiinu). The niembers of the coiiiicil are chosen by property-owners, who are divided into three classes, each class choosing an equal number of niembers. Its duties include the maintenance of the public health and .security, the care of markets, [lorts, charitable institutions, hospitals, and libraries, and the general supervi- sion of municipal affairs. A law of 1894 has materially reduced the ])Ower of the municipal government and placed it largely under the con- trol of the Imperial (iovenimenl. Tlic lowest administrative unit is the com- mune, of which there are over lOT.OOO in Euro- pean Russia. The chief executive oUicer of the commune is the l^larosla. Other oliieers are the ta.x collector, the treasurer, school trustees, hos- pital inspectors, etc. They are elected by the communal assembly {mir). This is a popular meeting of all the householders in the commune. It has many elements in common with the Xew England town meeting. Its duties include the regulation of all local afl'airs of comniunal inter- est. Among these may be mentidiied the prepara- tion of the communal budget, the voting of the taxes and the apportionment of those ta.xes due the empire, and the periodical division of the land (which is generally held in common) among the families comprised in the commune. It grants permission to pea.sants who wish to change their residences, passes upon the admission of new niembers to the commune, appoints guardians for minors, tries petty criminal cases, and imposes penalties. Usually a majtuity vote is sufficient to validate any action of the mir. though in sonic cases a two-thirds vote is required. The Sl(irns(a serves as moderator of the assembly. He super- vises the execution of its resolutions, has control of the police, and has charge of the disbursement of the communal funds. Several eominiines grouped together form a canton or roloul, of which there are over 10.000 in European Russia. Each is presided over by an elder iSlnrsbimi) elected by the cantonal assembly composed of representa- tives of the communes on the basis of one mem- ber to every ten families. It discharges the same duty for the canton that the mir does for the commune. It meets in the most imiiortant or the most central village of the eomninne. The Star- shiiM is assisted by a council. Ills term of ser-