Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 17.djvu/425

BUSSIAN LITERATURE. 385 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. among the best of their kind in the wliole range of lileiiituic. The Peuioi) of Naturalism in Eissiax Lit- EUATi RE. The first prose-writer in Russia to give the novel the important position it now enjoys in literature was Gogol (q.v.) (lS0!»-,52), Pushkin's devoted admirer and friend. In his eomedy Re- vivor .and his unfinished novel Dead Souls, he hriiught to the front the humorous side of Rus- sian ollieialdom, wliic-li lie lield up to ridicule with amazing ])ower. This period marks an epoch in the history of Russian literature. Slavophils and Westehxers. Both parties saw in Russia the "elect nati(m.' the future regen- erator. But the Slavophils found that regenera- tive force in Russia's past with her historical traditions, while the Westerners saw the special fitness of Russia to play the role of universal re- generator in the very alisence of historical tradi- tions. However great the dift'erences in their po- litical views, both camps were inspired by the same sincere love for the people, in whom alone they saw the future of Russia, for whom alone they pursued their labor of love and life. In this literary war the Westerners had the advantage of literary and artistic superiority. Around the coterie of Herzen, Bakuuin, Byelinski, Stankye- vitch, and Granovski clustered a number of rising authors, with higher education, all eagerly listen- ing to their prophet, Byelinski. Turgenieff, Tol- sto.y. Dostoyevski, Grigorovitch, GontcharofT, Shtehedrin, Sheftchenko, Xekrasoff. and even Gogol, more'or less, were products of Byelinski's school, whose tenets were the attainment of the social and ethical ideals of society. This school laid the foundation of the Liberal Russian move- ments. Epoch of Great Reforms (1855-62). On the accession of Alexander II. the writers who had been exiled for their reformatory endeavors were allowed to return to the capital. The periodicals tried to revive the liberal ideas of Byelinski, apparentl.y forgotten since his death. Two great critics were molding public opinion, and direct- ing it in the line of reform: Tehernyshevski (q.v.) (1828-89), choosing his themes in connec- tion with the questions of the day, established I)ositivist principles instead of the misty Hege- lianism of the forties. His pupil and successor, Dobrolyuboff (1836-61), a progressist par excel- lence, introduced criticism of public affairs into Russian literature. A literary production was henceforth esteemed in proportion as it advocated social progress. Aksakoff's Chronicle; Turge- niefl"'s Rudin. 'Soblemen's Xest, On the Ere, Fathers and Sons; Gontcharofls Ohlomoff ; Os- trovski's Storm : Shtchedrin's Governmental Shetches; Pisemski's Tltousand Souls and Bitter Lot: Dostoyevski's Memoirs from a Dead Tlouse; Tolstoy's Sebastopol Tales: and A. Tolstoy's Tri- locift — all these were created during the first years of tills period of intensity in literature. Reaction .xi) the Epoch of Nihilism. The peasant riots of 1862-63. on the morrow of libera- tion, the disturbances among the students, and especially the Polish insurrection of 1862-63, gave the reactionaries in the Slavophil camp an opportunity long awaited. The cr>- of nihilism went up, and Katkofl'. a Slavophil constitution- alist, now became the leader of Slavophilism in its new spirit of devotion to absolutism and throne, and advocacy of Russia for the Russians. Herzen and the 'nihilists' were pointed at as the only causes of the disturlmnces, and restrirtions were loudly demanded. The liberal writers transferred (heir dissatisfaction to their works of art. Shlchi'drin was unmerciful with his satire; Turgeiiielf pleaded in his pessinii-stie vein; Dostoyevski and Piseniski (>|KMily went over to the side of the reactionaries; (iunteharnir was at all events not iii sympathy with the lib- erals. On the other hand, Katkolf's Runsiun Messenger and Moscow flaxe.llc were stocked with 'anti-nihilistic' fiction; Pisemski's Turbulcnl Sea, Rlyushuikolf's Mira<ie, a .series of novels liy LyeskolV and 'syevolod-Krestovski, depicted ni- hilists as the very dregs of society. Simultaneously, interest in the peasants created the 'muzhik literature' so prominent in the next decade. The comic sketches of the peas- ants by N. Uspeiiski and Slyeptsolf (in the fifties) were succeeded bj' the serious sociidogical studies of RyeshetnikolT, Lcvitolf, and XaiiniolT. Yakushkin s|)enl all his life wamlering over Rus- sia, bundle in hand, collecting tales and songs. Commissioned bj' the (iovernmenl, Maksimolf traversed Silieria and embodied his observations in the famous A Year in the North. Together with Danilevski's studies of South Russian peas- ant life and Jlelnikoff's studies of the life of the R;iskolniks, these gave a true conception of the life of the lower classes. The Seventies — 'Peasastism.' The interest in social sciences expounded by the brilliant sociol- ogist and critic Jlikliailovski was at its height; his path was jireparcd by Pisareff (1841-68), who had establislied utilitarianism and real no- tions of individual rights in Russia. The lib- erals came to the conclusion that the only way to help the people was to enter among them and there spread knowledge and enliglitenment. Thou- sands of young i>eople donned the peasant's garb, foregoing the comforts of culture and city life. The period was not favorable to new names — altruistic action consumed the fiower of the gen- eration — but the old talents developed to ' the highest point. Shtehedrin wrote his Messieurs Goloveyeff (the crowning work of his literary career). Tolstoy, too, turned to altruistic love in his 'famine letter' (1873) and Anna Karrnina. All the new literary talents directed their efforts to HiKiftiV,- fiction. Among these writers the names of Glyeb Uspenski and Zlatovratski stand out in bold relief. Toward the end of the seven- tics pessimistic views begin to be reflected in the new authors. Such were Xovodvorski. Yasinski, Petropavlovski, Ertel, and particularly Garshin, However, in others, notably Polapenko and Koro- lenko, an optimistic note is heard. The Eighties and Nineties (Epoch of Grop- ing FOR New Ideals), Alexander III. instituted on his accession in 1881 a system of rigor and re- prisals. In literature only '])iire art' and pro- ductions incriminating the 'iinderminers of the foundations' were left undisturJM'd. A new school, ultra-Chauvinist and of the boulovardier-typc, crojiped up. Katkoff is the great leader of the absolutist party; another is Prince Meshtehcr- ski, editor of the Cili:en. Nearly all liberal pub- lications were stopped. Only Boborykiii con- stantly embodied the latest questions of the day ill his numerous novels. Fiction was forced into new channels, where discussions of current life is impossible: the historical novel nourishes under Vsyevolod SolovyofT. MordovtsetT. and Oani- levski. in poetry the most popular name is that