Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 17.djvu/448

SACRAMENT. 408 SACRAMENTO. oi their having been duly received. Besides the mailer and form, the intention of the minister is alsio held to be essential to the valiility of any sacrament. There has been much discussion as to the exact sense in which this requirement is to be taken ; but all agree that a true inner in- tention, not necessarily exi)Iicit, of performing the act as a religions one is required. If this were denied, it is held that the sacraments would be reduced to the level of mere charms, without any moral responsibilily on the part of the minister. A distinction is made between irregu- lar and invalid administration of the sacraments: thus tlif sacraments administered by a suspended or exconnnnnicated priest would be valid, but not regular, except in the case of a dying person where no other priest was to be had, when such a ])riest would be allowed to administer them. For the details of the sacraments in their traditional acceptation and use, see Baptism; Confirma- tion ; Lord's Supper ; Penance ; Confession ; ExTRE.ME Unction; Orders, Holy; Marriage. Under the titles Lord's Supper and Mass the doctrinal and sacrificial aspects of the Eucharist have been covered, but some further details of the history and usages of communion may be given here. The manner of reception has varied considerably at different periods. As to the sac- ramental bread, the question whether it should be leavened or imleavened has caused acute contro- versies between East and West. In the modern practice of the Roman Catholic Church it is a thin unleavened wafer, large and stamped with sacred symbols for the celebrant, smaller for the other communicants, and is placed directly in their mouths by the priest. Reception in the hand, which seems to have been usual in the early ages, is now the common rule in the non-C'atholie churches. (For the history of the withdrawal of the chalice from all but the celebrant, see Com- munion IN Both Kinds.) The modern dread of bacterial infection has led to the adoption in some Protestant churches of a small separate cup for each communicant. The frequency of recep- tion lias also varied, from apparently every day in the apostolic times to once a month, a quarter, or a year. The latter, for Roman Catholics, has been a fixed minimum since the time of the Lateran Council of 1215. In practice with them it is generally preceded by sacramental confes- sion, although there is no strict obligation of this where the communicant is free from mortal sin. The Anglican Church makes provision for the celebration of the sacrament in the sick-room, but by the Roman Catholic practice it is carried from the church to the sick person. By the majority of the reformed churches the sacraments are held to be merely ceremonial observances, partly designed as a solemn act by which persons are admitted to membership or make solemn professions thereof, partly in- tended to stimulate the faith and fervor of the recipient, to which disposition alone all the in- terior effects are to be ascribed. As to the number of rites called by the name of sacrament, almost all Protestants agree in restricting it to baptism and communion, even though they retain as religious observances some of the rites which Catholics regard as sacraments. It is contended, however, by the High Church party in the Church of England that Article XXV., which seems to deny the sacramental nature of confir- mation, orders, and so on, does not really do so. but merely asserts that they are not on the same footing with the two great sacraments as gen- erally necessary to salvation. Consult: Dix, The Hucrumental Si/s^tcm the Extension of Ihe Incarnation (New York, 1803) ; Oswald, Die dogmatische Lchre von den hiiliyeii Hakramentcn (5th ed., Miinster, 1894) ; Schanz, Die Lehre ron den iiabramenten der katholisehcn Kirche (Freiburg, 1893) ; and most general works on dogmatic theology. SACRAMENTALS (Lat. sacramentalis, re- lating to a sairaiuent, from sacramentttm, sacra- ment, mystery, engagement, military oath). A term used in Roman Catholic theology to desig- nate certain rites which partake of the nature of sacraments in so far that they are. if properly used, means of grace, which is conveyed through an external ceremony. While all the sacraments are held to have been instituted directly by Christ, sacranientals are of ecclesiastical insti- tution. The term may be applied either to a material object which is blessed for the purpose or to its employment as a means of grace. A multitude of objects which receive priestly bene- diction are used in this way: holy water, blessed candles, palms, the ashes used on Ash Wednes- day, medals, crosses, and the like, all come under this head. Consult. Probst. Sakramcnte iind Sakrainentalicn (Tubingen, 1872). SACRAMENTARIANS. The name given in the sixteentli century to those among the reform- ers who separated from Luther on the doctrine of the Eucharist. Luther taught the doctrine of a mystical presence of the body and blood of Christ along with the bread and wine. (See Lord's Supper; Luther.) The first of his followers who called this doctrine in question was Andreas Carlstadt (q.v. ): and notwithstanding the pro- test of his leader, Carlstadt had many followers. The parly became so considerable that in the Diet of Augsburg (1530) they presented a special Confession distinct from that put forwanl by the general body of Protestants, known as the Tetrapolitan Confession, because written in the name of the four cities, Constance, Lindau, Memmingen, and Strassburg. It was prepared by JIartin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito (qq.v. ) and contained 23 chapters. The Confession re- jects the doctrine of a corporeal presence, and although it admits a spiritual presence of Christ which the devout soul can feel and enjoy, it excludes all idea of a physical presence. The four cities continued for many years to adhere to the Confession, but eventually they accepted the Augsburg Confession and were merged in the general body of Lutherans. Simultaneous with this South German movement, yet independent of it, was that of the Swiss reformer Zwingli (q.v.) , whose doctrine on the Eucharist was that in it tlic true body of Christ is present by the con- templation of faith, but not in essence of reality. Zwingli himself presented a private confession of faith to the Augsburg Diet, in which this doc- trine is embodied. His article upon the Eucharist was in substance embodied in the Helvetic Con- fession of 1500. SAC'RAMEN'TO. The principal river of California, draining the northern half of the great central valley of the State (Map: Cali- fornia, C 2). The headstream which bears the name of the main river rises on the southern slope of Mount Shasta, in the northern part of