Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 17.djvu/732

SCHOOLS. 662 SCHOOLS. prndinf;. aiul iiistnietioii was piven to cla.sscs in- stead of iiidivirluals. Itel'oro the eigliteentli een- tirj- inamial traiiiiii',' had appeared in the schools. The inslilulions founded by Franeke at Halle in- elihU'd lUiryher seliools and a Pcdagogium, in liolh of which students were trained in the man- ual arts. These schools also offer examples of the study of natural science by laboratory meth- ods. The complex and rapid development of modern schools is best studied under the titles given at the end of this article. Hei.igiois KortATioN IN Schools. The history of relif;ious education has been bound up with that of the control of education by priesthoods or ehurehcs. Inasmuch as the civic virtues of the people are cultivated and sanctioned by re- ligious observances and beliefs, religious educa- tion has l)ccn of the greatest importance in de- veloping cohesive and ])overful nationalities. This is especially true while the religion remains a purely national one. Willi tlic appearance of cosniopiditan religions like Cliristianity and Mo- haninieilanisni, the value of religious education for the cultivation of a s|)ecifically national spirit became less. In Europe Church and State drifted apart, and the former, as dealing with man's spiritual interests, assumed control of educadon. The Ueforniation, by introducing nationalism again into matters of religion, led to the active assumption by Protestant rulers of authority over education, as one of the phases of religious responsibility. In the struggles that followed, religious education was felt to be a means, not merely of furthering man's eternal and spiritual welfare, but also of strengthening the State. The nuiltiplication of sects, however, leading in many communities to a separation of Church from State, has tended to drive out from the State schools such religious instruction as is peculiar to any specific Church, and to exclude or minimize the amount of ecclesiastical control or inspection. The Catholics maintain schools of all grades in the United States, England, and the Catholic nations of Europe. In France up to the time of the enforcement of the Associations Law a con- siderable fraction of both elementary and secon- dary education was carried on by different Catho- lic Orders. In these schools religious instruction constitutes an important part of the curricula. See France, section on Education. In respect to religious instruction and the supervision thereof, the following classes of schools exist: ( 1 ) Schools conducted under denominational auspices and subsidized by the State. England, Holland, and Russia furnish examples of this type. In Russia the schools of the Holy Synod carry on nearly half of the elementary instruc- tion given. Their principal aim is religious edu- cation, and their maintenance is entirely from public funds. In England the schools "of the Church societies have been for many years in receipt of Government grants. In return, how- ever, they have submitted to Government inspec- tion and are not allowed to require any specific faith of their pupils. Moreover, the 'conscience clause' allows parents, if they see fit, to with- draw children from school during the time de- voted to religious exercises. The law of 1902 places the programme of secular studies in such schools in the hands of the Government, which in return provides almost entirely for their main- tenance. In Holland denominational schools are subsidized, provided they maintain the ollicial standard. (2) Schools under State control, but offering religious instruction that is supervised by re- ligious authorities. In Spain religious instruc- tion is given regularly in the State schools, and the clergy are re])resented on the governing boards and inspect the schools. In Austria re- ligious instruction is given in the schools. The beliefs of the religion dominant in the locality are taught. The instruction is usually carried on by clergymen. In Prussia religious instruc- tion is compulsory and supervised by the clergy. The tenets of the majority are taught by regular teachers. The State also provides partially for the religious instruction of the minority. In Sweden the clergy inspect the schools and are pi'ominent in their control. In Norway religious instruction is supervised by the clergj'. The same is true of Denmark., (.■)) In several countries, while the school does not undertake religious instruction, the State permits the use of the schoolhouse for this pur- pose, and sometimes sets aside a period during which such instruction may be given by the clergy of different denominations. Such a plan exists in Holland and in some of the cantons of Switzer- land. In France place is made on the school programme for the attendance of children on religious instruction, but it is given outside the school building. In Italy religious instruction may be given outside the schoolhouse if there is a local demand therefor. (4) ]Iany countries exclude denominational religious instruction entirely from the currieulum, France his taken this stand, but the French school programme contains a great deal of in- struction of an ethical and religious but non- denominational character. The Swiss Constitu- tion forbids compulsory religious instruction and some cantons give none whatever. The religious instruction of the English non-denoininational public schools is of a very general character, and the conscience clause permits the withdrawal of pupils from it. In the United States no denomi- national instruction is given in the schools of any State. In New England Bible reading and prayer are a common part of the programme of school work. JIassachusetts requires them, but children may be withdrawn while religious ex- ercises are being conducted, if the parents so desire. In many of the States the constitu- tions forbid the use of public funds for the aid of sectarian schools. Many also forbid sectarian instruction in the schools. This, however, is not taken to mean that the Bible should not be read or prayer ofTered. for in 1895 the Bureau of Education found that out of 808 cities of 4000 population or over, which were scattered over the Union, G51 had religious exer- cises in their schools, and these were prohibited in only 77 cities. In Wisconsin the prohibition of religious exercises is general. The earlier colonial schools of the United States were usually under sectarian control and gave much attention to religious instruction. After the Revolution the spirit of freedom in re- ligious matters became dominant. The First Amendment to the Constitution declares that "Congress shall make no law respecting an estab- lishment of religion or prohibiting the free exer- cise thereof." The States also have followed the