term "liberal" seemed practically synonymous with the term "man." The liberal current of the day was not solely manifested in the writings of the literary critics, but found able journalistic exponents as well (Polevoi). Abroad, the ideas of the decabrists were propagated by N. Turgenev and by Herzen. The Russian refugees, organising their efforts, endeavoured to break the fetters of the censorship.
During the reign of Nicholas came the blossoming time of modern Russian literature. The great writers of this epoch, Puškin, Gogol, Turgenev, Gončarov, etc., were liberals; all, that is to say, led and sustained individualistic aspirations towards freedom, even though some of them could not altogether lay aside conservative habits of thought. Modern art in general (for the remark does not apply solely to imaginative literature) can no longer be deliberately conservative and theocratic in its leanings. Such has been the valuable and momentous outcome of the evolution following upon the French revolution.
Agrarian and economic development, too, had perforce to take a liberal turn. Whether at the hands of the crown, the landowners, the mercantile classes, or the peasants, more efficient production could only be brought about by scientific method, and especially by the intelligent application of the achievements of natural science. Further, the principles of Adam Smith secured recognition, and were put into practice in internal affairs. Owing to the defective yield of servile labour the liberation of the peasantry was found to be essential. Liberalism was invigorated by the influence of German philosophy, and especially by that of Hegel; towards the close of the forties, the Hegelian left (Feuerbach), positivism, materialism, and the French socialists, began to influence the Russian liberals, so that a number of them now became socialists. The Petraševcy were the first victims of the more radical current. Socialism and anarchism were evoked by the revolutionary sentiments voiced by Herzen and Bakunin, at first while they were still in Russia, and subsequently as refugees. Socialism and Bakuninist anarchism now dominated the mind of youth.
Liberalism became distinguished from socialism and from anarchism in respect of program and in respect of its advocates; Herzen and Bakunin drew apart, not only from the slavophils, but also from Granovskii.
