cannot to-day determine with accuracy to what degree, in cultural and political matters, the Russians shared the ideas, customs, and institutions common to the other Indo-European stocks; nor do we know how these ideas, institutions, and customs originated. The spread of Christianity subsequently laid the same or similar foundations throughout the western world, ahd upon these foundations a superstructure of ideas and institutions could be erected in Russia, analogous to those which were erected in Byzantium and in the west. Similar considerations apply to the recent Europeanisation of Russia and to the working of western influences in that country.
In the historical sketch, and during the description of the specific western influences, I have distinguished as precisely as possible between the effects of adoption from abroad on the one hand, and of spontaneous parallel development on the other. To give a concrete example, I referred to the parallelism between Pisarev and Stirner, for in this instance similar superstructures were erected upon an identical foundation (Feuerbach) in Russia and in Europe respectively. In great measure the development of Marxism in Russia, based upon the acceptance of Feuerbach, Comte, and materialism, may be regarded as parallel to the development of Marxism in Europe. In the case of the slavophils we were able to demonstrate that western influences were at work, and we were able to point to the independent elaboration of German ideas. The like parallel evolutionary series can be discovered in the case of Russia and of Europe in respect of feudalism, capitalism, constitutionalism, the revolution, and so on. Side by side with adoption from abroad and the direct influence of such adoption, we can always note a comparatively independent further development of what has been adopted.
Adoption from foreign sources may vary greatly both quantitatively and qualitatively. There may occur a purely mechanical seizure (such as in literature is termed gross plagiary), and imitation; or there may occur a more or less deliberate selection (such as was effected by Čaadaev), and elaboration by a congenial spirit.
This deliberate elaboration may develop into a creative synthesis wherein the entire personality experiences the labour pains attendant on the birth of the ideal of the future. Such a synthesis is attempted by Kirěevskii, and indeed by many of the best Russian thinkers.
