A Moslem Seeker after God/His Writings

by Samuel Marinus Zwemer

VI

His Writings

"I saw the Prophet in a dream, and he was contending with Moses and Jesus regarding the superiority of excellence of the Imam Al-Ghazali, and saying to them, 'Have you had in your sects such a learned and righteous man?' alluding to Al-Ghazali, and they both replied, 'No.' The Shaikh, the Imam, one acquainted with God, the Master, the support of religious law and truth, Abu'l-'Abbas al Mursi said, when mention was made of Al-Ghazali, 'Testimony has been already borne to his great and extreme veracity, and it is sufficient for you (to know) that it was he regarding whom the Prophet contended with Moses and Jesus, and to whose great and extreme veracity the most truthful have borne testimony.'"

—Ad-Damiri's Hayat al-Hayawan.

"Verily I saw in the Gospel of Jesus (on him be peace) that he said: From the moment the dead is placed on the bier until he rests on the edge of the open grave God Most High asks of him forty questions."

—Al-Ghazali in Risalat Ayyuha'l walad (sec. 5).

VI

HIS WRITINGS

MORE by far is known of Al-Ghazali from his writings than from the records of his life. The meagre facts of the biographers and even the spelling of his name, as we have seen, are disputed. His pen, however, left so large a legacy that many of his works are still found only in rare manuscripts, and have never been published. Moslem writers mention ninety-nine works, and Brockelmann in his "History of Arabic Literature" catalogues sixty-nine which are still in existence. They include systems of theology, eschatology, works on philosophy, lectures on mysticism, on ethics, and on canon law.

Many have assigned to Al-Ghazali the highest position among all Moslem writers. Ismael Ibn Mohammed Al Hadrami says: "Mohammed the son of Abdullah was the Prince of all the Prophets; Mohammed the son of Idris Al-Shafi was the Prince of Imams; but Mohammed the son of Mohammed,the son of Mohammed Al-Ghazali, was the Prince of Writers."

We have interesting evidence of Al-Ghazali's position as a writer even in his own day in the pre171

cious relic shown in our illustration. In the Arabic Museum at Cairo there is a maqlama or pen-case which once belonged to Al-Ghazali. It was pre sented to the Museum by M. Kyticas and is made of brass overlaid with silver. It bears the follow ing inscription: "Made for the library of our Mas ter, the most great and noble Imam, our revered Leader, the Mouthpiece of verity, the greatest Scholar of the world, the King of wise men, the Stay of all living, the Treasury of truth, the most illustrious among his contemporaries, the Restorer of religion, [an illegible word] Hujjat ul-Islam, Mohammed Al-Ghazali."

This bronze is the oldest piece of damascened metal work and the only example of that epoch with naskhi inscription in the possession of the Museum. That the case was not made at a later period and presented to Al-Ghazali’s library after his death is evident from the fact that it was the custom to present a book or celestial globe to a library, but not a pen-case or even an inkstand. Then, too, the word " al-marhum," meaning " de ceased," does not appear on it as it does on other objects which were offered in memory of a de ceased person. An objection to the authenticity of the bronze is the use of silver in a pen-case de signed to be used by a Sufi doctor pledged in some measure to an ascetic life. But this objection may be answered by stating that the case was not made

to the order of Al-Ghazali personally, but by his

Pen case of Al Ghazali, made of brass inlaid with silver, preserved in the Arab Museum, Cairo.

disciples in order to obtain his good-will and pat ronage. 1

We need not, moreover, be surprised at the ap parent lack of modesty which the inscription on the pen-case indicates. Judging from other instances of this period, Al-Ghazali himself might well have written the inscription.

An almost complete list of Al-Ghazali’s writings as well as of the translations of his works into other languages, especially Hebrew, Latin, French, Ger man, and English, is given in the appendix. 2 Be fore we speak of some of his more important works a summary will interest the reader. The Jazvahir al-Koran (Jewels of the Koran) contains observa tions on some of the verses of the Koran which have special value; the Aqida is a statement of the articles of the Moslem faith, and was published by Pococke in his Specimen; the Precious Pearl (Al Durrat Al-Fakhira) is a treatise on the last judg ment and the end of the world, i. e., his eschatology and has been translated and published by L. Gautier. The morality and theology of the mys tics are codified in the Ihya ulum id-din (Revivifi cation of the Religious Sciences) . The Misan Al amal (The Balance of Works) has been translated

1 See a paper on this subject by Ali Bey Bargat, Sur Deux Bronzes du Musee Arabe " Bulletin de 1 Inst, Egypt," IV: 7

2 For critical notes on his works see R. Gosche, pp. 249 300, also Gardner’s remarks and lis t.

into Hebrew by Ibrahim bin Hasdai of Barcelona, and published by Goldenthal. The Kimiya as sa ada (Alchemy of Happiness) is a popular lec ture founded on mysticism; this work which was originally written in Persian, has been twice trans lated into English, by H. A. Homes in 1873 and more recently by Claud Field. Ayyuha l-walad (O Child!) is a celebrated moral treatise, which has been translated into German and published by Ham mer-Purgstall. Among works on jurisprudence, his treatises on Shafi ite law have earned great reputation in the Moslem world; his Basit, Wasit, and Wajiz are all abridgments of them. In the domain of philosophy, the Tahafut al-Falasifa (Collapse of the Philosophers) is an attack on the adherents of the Greek Philosophy; it has been edited by De Boer. The Maqasid al-Falasifa (Aims of the Philosophers) is a sort of introduc tion to the above. The text has been published by G. Beer, and a Latin translation by Gondisalvi is in existence, which was printed in Venice in 1506. Al-Munqidh min ad-Dalai (The Deliverer from Error), written after the author commenced his life as a teacher at Nishapur for the second time, describes the development of his philosophy. It was translated and published by Schmolders in his " Essay on the Schools of Philosophy Among the Arabs "; a second and greatly improved translation was published in the Journal Asiatique for 1877, by the learned savant, Barbier de Meynard. More re

cently it appeared in English under the title " The Confessions of Al-Ghazali." It is one of his shortest but most famous books and can be com pared with the " Confessions " of St. Augustine, or John Bunyan’s " Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners." Several of Al-Ghazali’s numerous works are very brief, in the shape of epistles or tractates.

Among his shorter works the following may be mentioned: Al-Addb fi Din, a short treatise on the ethics of politeness, prepared for the use of his pupils. It speaks of the ideal pupil, the ideal teacher, of the ethics of eating, drinking, marriage and the religious life. A smaller work already mentioned is the Risala Ayyuh Al-Walad (" O Child!"). In it he defines faith and works and distinguishes between them. A curious passage occurs in the introduction which reflects on Al Ghazali’s accuracy of statement, or at least raises the question as to which " Gospel " he refers to. He says: " O my child, live as you please for you are already dead; love whom you wish, for you are bound to be separated; and do what you will, for you are sure to be judged for it. Verily I saw in the Gospel of Jesus (upon Him be prayers and peace) that He said, * From the hour in which the dead is put upon the bier until the time when he rests on the edge of the grave God will ask him forty questions, the first of which is, O my serv ant, you have purified yourself to a ppear before

men many years and not for one hour have you purified yourself for my gates, and every day a voice was sounded in your ears saying, What you do for others why do you not do for me who sur rounds you with my mercy! but you were deaf and not willing to hear/

In his "Alchemy of Happiness " there is a beau tiful chapter on " Know Thyself." The parable there used regarding man’s soul and the enemies that lay siege against it reminds one very much of Bunyan’s "Holy War." The shortest of his works, as far as I am aware, is called Al-Qawa id Al-Ashara (The Ten Articles); this has been frequently reprinted. It consists of ten principles of faith and conduct, and is scarcely longer than an ordinary letter. Of a similar character is Risalat-ut-Tair the parable of the birds. His most celebrated treatise on ethics and conduct is entitled Mizan ul Amal It might be compared to the book of Ecclesiastes or the first chapters of the book of Proverbs. In the introduction Al-Ghazali shows the folly of those who neglect to secure the happiness of their immortal souls as well as the peril of those who despise faith in the world to come. The true way of happiness consists in knowing the right and doing it. The soul is a unit and its various powers are knit together and are interdependent. The path of the mystic unites true faith with true practice. He also speaks of the possibility of change of character through religious

devotion and mentions the virtues that are to be cultivated and the vices to be shunned on this path way to God and to true happiness.

To emphasize the importance of life with its brevity and the supreme importance of eternity Al-Ghazali says: " Suppose we imagine that the whole world is filled with dust and that a little bird should come and snatch up one atom of dust every thousand years. We know that there would be an end of its task, but nothing would have been taken away from the everlasting character of that eter nity which has no end." Although the moral teaching of this book is very noble, it is after all based entirely on the principle of salvation by works. There is no hint of the possibility of the transformation of character through regeneration of the heart, nor is the way pointed to the victori ous life by overcoming temptation through a power that is not our own.

Of all his writings none is celebrated more justly than his greatest work " The Revival of Religious Sciences " (Ihya ulum id Din). It is a veritable encyclopaedia of Moslem teaching and ethics and covers the whole range of Moslem thought. Many editions of this work have been printed and com mentaries written on it, the most celebrated of which is by Mohammed-uz-Zubeidi Al-Murtadha, in ten large volumes. The work itself consists of four volumes of ten books each and has a total of over one thousand closely printed pages. Although

widely read in its original form, popular demand has called forth several abbreviated compendia of the work. One of them entitled "A Homily for Believers," by Mohammed Jamal-ud-Din of Da mascus, is used as a text-book on Islam in the The ological Seminary of the American Mission in Cairo.

The first part of the original work is entitled " Things that pertain to worship "; the second part, " Things that pertain to practice "; the third part, " Things that destroy the soul," i. e., the vices; the fourth part, " Things that deliver the soul," i. e., the virtues. The contents are as follows:

" THINGS THAT PERTAIN TO WORSHIP " I. The Book of Knowledge, which has seven divisions:

1. The Benefits of Learning.

2. What Kind of Knowledge is Forbidden

and Permitted.

3. Theological Learning and Nomencla

ture.

4. Conditions of Debate and Controversy.

5. The Relation of Teacher and Pupil.

6. The Dangers of Learning.

7. The Mind and its Uses.

II. The Book of Dogma, which has four divisions:

1. The Moslem Creed.

2. Degrees of Faith.

3. God, His Being, Attributes, Work.

4. Faith and Islam.

III. The Book of the Mysteries of Purity, which

has three divisions:

1. Purification from Unclean Objects.

2. Purification from Unclean States.

3. Purification from Unclean Matters that

cling to the Body (finger-nails, ears, etc.).

IV. The Book of the Mysteries of Prayer, which

has seven divisions:

1. The Benefits of Prayer.

2. Outward Observance of Prayer.

3. Conditions of Prayer.

4. The Imam.

5. Friday Prayers.

6. Miscellaneous Matters.

7. Special Prayers.

V. The Book of the Mysteries of Almsgiving, which has four divisions:

1. Kinds of Alms.

2. Conditions of Giving.

3. To Whom.

4. How they are Observed.

VI. The Book of the Mysteries of Fasting, which has three divisions:

1. Its Necessity.

2. Its Mysteries.

3. Obedience through Fasting.

VII. The Book of the Mysteries of the Pilgrimage, which has three divisions:

1. Its Benefits and Character.

2. The Order of Procedure.

3. Its Inward Signi ficance.

VIII. The Book of the Perusal of the Koran. IX. The Book of Zikr and Prayer. X. The Book of the Night Meditation.

" THINGS THAT PERTAIN TO PRACTICE " I. The Ethics of Eating and Drinking. II. The Ethics of Marriage.

III. The Ethics of Trade.

IV. Things that are Allowed and Forbidden. V. Ethics of Friendship and Conversation.

VI. The Life of Seclusion. VII. The Ethics of Journeying. VIII. The Ethics of Music and Poetry. IX. On Favours and Offenses. X. The Ethics of True Living and the Virtues of the Prophet.

" THINGS THAT DESTROY THE SOUL " I. The Wonders of the Heart. II. The Exercise of the Soul.

III. The Dangers of the Two Desires, namely, of

the Appetite and of Lust.

IV. The Evils of the Tongue.

V. The Evils of Anger and Envy. VI. On Despi sing the World. VII. On Despising Property and Greed. VIII. On Despising the Love of Honour and

Hypocrisy. IX. On Despising Vanities.

" THINGS THAT DELIVER THE SOUL " I. The Book of Repentance.

II. The Book of Patience and Thankfulness.

A facsimile page of the Ihya (Vol. II, page 180, Cairo Ed.). It gives a diagram of the prayer kibla and the rules to be observed in facing it correctly.

It

III. The Book of Fear.

IV. The Book of Poverty and Asceticism. V. The Book of the Unity of God.

VI. The Book of Love.

VII. The Book of Good Intent and Sincerity.

VIII. The Book of Self-examination.

IX. The Book of Meditation.

X. The Book of the Remembrance of Death.

Especially the third and fourth parts of his great work show us Al-Ghazali as a mystic and a preacher cf righteousness. His ten books on " Things that deliver the soul " furnish material from which it would not be difficult to collect a beautiful anthology or a daily calendar of spiritual thoughts. Such a rosary of pearls from Al Ghazali’s works might well be used for devotion by Christians as well as by Moslems.

Another most interesting book is that on the names of God, entitled Al-Maksad ul-Asna Sharh Asma -Allah ul Husna, "The Highest Aim: the Explanation of the Beautiful Names of God." The book is divided into three parts of which the first deals philosophically with the meaning of the word " name " and its distinction from the nam ing of the thing and the thing named itself: also how it is possible for God to have many names and yet to be one essence. The second part of the book is the longest and treats of the ninety-nine names of God in order showing how they are comprehended in the seven attributes and the one essen ce. The

third part is brief and shows that there are really more than ninety-nine names, but that this was the number fixed upon for good reasons. And finally there is a section telling how God may and may not be described.

Al-Ghazali teaches in this book that the imitation of God’s attributes is the highest happiness for the believer. There are three degrees in the knowl edge of God, and in this respect he says: "The virtues of the righteous are the faults of the Saints "; by which he means that the nearer we approach to God the more perfect is our standard of character. The three degrees of knowledge are (1) intellectual, (2) that of admiration and at tempted imitation, (3) that of actual acquirements of God’s attributes such as the angels. Nearness to God is by rank and degree, not in regard to posi tion or place. He quotes with approval the famous saying of Junaid: " No one knows God save God Himself Most High, and therefore even to the best of His creatures He has only revealed His names, in which He hides Himself." He says that two statements are true in regard to God and the believer. The true believer must say, " I know nothing but God," and " I know nothing of God."

The last book Al-Ghazali wrote was the Minhaj al-Abidin or " Guide of True Worshippers." It is said to have been written for those who could not understand the Ihya and deals with the cr eed and

ritual of Islam from the standpoint of the mystic. Our illustration shows in facsimile the first page of this celebrated work from a recent Cairo edition. On the margin of the text we have the Beginner’s Guide, already spoken of. These two works of Al-Ghazali are very popular and have recently had an increasing circulation.

The Minhaj shows that Al-Ghazali at the close of his life had adopted the vocabulary of the mys tics even for popular teaching. The various chap ters are called " stages " in the progress of the soul towards salvation and peace. The first stage is that of knowledge, then follows repentance, a list of the hindrances on the road to God, things that delay the soul in its onward progress, such as the world and its allurements, the flesh, the devil, the senses. Other hindrances are the cares of gaining a living, the perplexities and troubles of life, while the last stages in the road of the mystic are those of praise to God under all circumstances, and ear nest endeavour to attain to the reality of the ex perience of His presence.

So difficult is the road which Al-Ghazali de scribes that he says: " Some seekers can only finish these stages in seventy years, some in twenty, some in ten. Others there are, however, whose souls are so enlightened, so free from the care and perplexity of the world, that they finish the journey and arrive at the goal in a year, a month, what do I say, in an hour; so that they awaken like the Companions of

the Cave, and the change they see in themselves and those about them is to them as a dream."

His teaching on prayer as given in the Ihya cer tainly rises very high above that of the ritualist who puts all his attention on the punctiliousness of outward observance. " Prayers are of three de grees, of which the first are those that are simply spoken with the lips. Prayers are of the second kind when with difficulty, and only by a most reso lute effort, the soul is able to fix its thoughts on divine things without being disturbed by evil im aginations; they are of the third kind when one finds it difficult to turn away the mind from dwell ing on divine things. But it is the very marrow of prayer when He who is invoked takes possession of the soul of the suppliant, and the soul of him who prays is absorbed into God, to whom he prays, and, his prayer ceasing, all consciousness of self has de parted, and to such a degree that all thought what soever of the praying is felt as a veil between the soul and God. This state is called by the Sufis absorption/ for the reason that the man is so ab sorbed that he takes no thought of his body, or of anything that happens externally, or even of the movements of his own soul, but is first engaged in going towards his Lord, and finally is wholly in his Lord. If even the thought occurs that he is ab sorbed in the Absolute it is a blemish, for that absorption only is worthy of the name, though they will be called, as I well know, but foolish babbling

by raw theologians, are yet by no means without significance. For consider: The condition of which I speak resembles that of a person who loves any other object, such as wealth, honour, or pleas ure. We see such persons so carried away with their love, and others with their anger, that they do not hear one who speaks to them, nor see those passing before their eyes. Nay, so absorbed are they in their passion that they do not perceive their absorption; you necessarily; Jurn it away from that which is the object of it/

Elsewhere Al-Ghazali says: " The commence ment of this life is the going to God; then follows the finding Him, when the absorption takes place. This at first is momentary, as the lightning swiftly glancing upon the eye, but afterwards, confirmed by use, it introduces the soul into a higher world, where, the most pure essential essence meeting it, fills the soul with the images of the spiritual world, while the majesty of Deity discovers itself. "\

The evident sincerity and the moral earnestness of Al-Ghazali shown in his works and in the ex tracts which we have quoted, surely explains in a large degree why his influence has been so deep and permanent, far greater than that of the merely in tellectual philosophers, such as Averroes. While he discouraged scholastic philosophy, he encour aged moral philosophy. The reader will remember how he carried a book of ethics with him on his journeys. After his death several famous ethical

treatises were composed which derived much from him. Claud Field says " the most important of these is the Akhlaq-i-Jalali, by Jalaluddin Asa ad Aldawani, which has been ably translated into English by Mr. W. F. Thompson. The Akhlaq-i Jalali itself is largely a translation into Persian from the Arabic, the original of which appeared in the tenth century under the name of Kitab-ut Taharat. Two centuries after it was translated into Persian by Abu Nasr, and named Akhlaq Nasiri, enriched with some important additions from Avicenna. In the fifteenth century it as sumed a still further improved form under its pres ent name, the Akhlaq-i-Jalali. " *

That Al-Ghazali was a careful student of nature is evident in all his writings. Those portions of the Koran which deal with natural theology and the proof of God’s existence from the starry heavens, from the fertile ground, the animal crea tion, and the sea with its terrors, especially seem to appeal to him. One of his books is entitled Al Hikmat fi Makhlukat Allah (The Wisdom of God Shown in the Marvels of Creation). It is one of his shorter writings but full of beautiful passages on the glory of the starry heavens, the earth and the sea, and the four primal elements. One long chapter is devoted to embryology and the physical wonders of the human frame. Another is on birds, another on quadrupeds and on fishes. The con "The Mystics of Islam."

elusion of the whole treatise is the argument from design, for the goodness and greatness of the Cre ator as shown in His works. What he says in re gard to the benefits to be obtained from gazing into the starry vault may be compared with David’s words in the eighth and the nineteenth Psalms. Says Al-Ghazali: " To look up into the vault of heaven drives away anxiety, removes the whisper ings of Satan, takes away idle fear, reminds us of God, brings the heart to magnify Him, banishes evil thoughts, cures pessimism, comforts the pas sionate, delights the lover, and it is the best Kibla for those who call to God in prayer."

Al-Ghazali was also a dogmatic theologian and controversialist. He wrote a commentary on the Koran in forty volumes, never printed; and a dozen books against various heretics, including one en titled: " The Best Reply to Those Who Have Tam pered with the Gospel." Al-Ghazali, who was himself cursed for alleged heresy, is memorable among the theologians of Islam in that by his breadth of sympathy he forbade the cursing of Yazid, the notorious slayer of Hussein, Moham med’s grandson, and gave his opinion in these words: " It is forbidden to curse a Moslem: Yazid was a Moslem. It is not certain that he slew Al Husain, and it is forbidden to think ill of a Mos lem. We cannot be certain that he ordered his death; really we cannot be certain of the cause of the death of any great man, especially at such a

distance of time. We have also to remember the party spirit and false statements in this particular case. Again, if he did kill him, he is not an unbe liever because of that; he is only disobedient to God. Again, he may have repented before he died. Further, to abstain from cursing is no crime. No one will be asked if he ever cursed Satan; if he has cursed him he may be asked, Why? The only ac cursed ones of whom we know are those who die infidels." *

Among his books against the philosophers we must mention three which are closely related to one another. They are the Maqasid-ul-Falasifa, a statement of the true teachings of the philosophers and a presentation of their views of the world; the Tahafut ul Falasifa which overthrows their views and shows that they are untenable to those who would follow Islam with heart and mind; the Qawa id, which shows the truths that must be built up to take the place of the errors of the philos ophers. In the first-named book, according to Macdonald, he " smites the philosophers hip and thigh, turns their own weapons against them and goes to the extreme of intellectual scepticism; seven hundred years before Hume he cuts the bond of causality with the edge of his dialectic and proclaims that we can know nothing of cause or effect, but simply that one thing follows an other/

1 Macdonald , p. 72.

Al-Ghazali’s great work " The Revival of Re ligious Sciences," caused great scandal in Anda lusia. There the intolerance of the learned passed all bounds because of the narrowness of their views. Their theology was limited to minute knowledge of Canon Law. They had no place for the religion which Ghazali preached, which was personal and passionate, a religion of the heart. When he attacked contemporary theologians busy with questions of legality and the externals of re ligion, he touched these pharisees of the law at the quick and they not only squirmed but screamed loudly. According to Dozy, " the Kady of Cor dova, Ibn Hamdin, declared that any man who read Al-Ghazali’s book was an infidel ripe for damna tion, and he drew up a fatwa condemning all copies of the book to the flames. This fatwa, signed by the Fakihs of Cordova, was formally approved by AH. Al-Ghazali’s book was accordingly burnt in Cordova and all the other cities of the Empire, and possession of a copy was interdicted on pain of death and confiscation of property."

But this opinion was not shared by Moslems elsewhere. In his lifetime and especially after his death his works against philosophy and his great exposition of Islam found ever larger circles of readers and commentators.

He has been accused, and not without good rea son, both by Moslem writers and European critics, of carelessness and inaccuracy in his quotations

and references to other books. 1 One of the charges brought against him by his assailants is that he falsified Tradition. Macdonald’s judgment is very charitable when he says that " he quoted from memory too freely, because he was a man of too large a calibre to watch his quotations and they were loose to the end of his life."

As-Subqi in his Tabakat-ash-Shafa iya al Kubra devotes a special section to what is entitled "A List of all the Traditions given by Al-Ghazali in his Ihya which have no isnad f or pedigree, i. e., Tradi tions quoted by him as authoritative and yet which from the standpoint of Moslem criticism are on this account absolutely worthless. This section of the book referred to covers many pages and by actual count I found over six hundred Traditions each catalogued by reference to the chapter in which they occur. Now we have no reason to doubt that As-Subqi (d. 771 A. H.) was an ad mirer of Al-Ghazali and esteemed his teaching, yet what shall we say when in this collection of the lives of the saints so strong an indictment is made of Al-Ghazali’s inaccuracy by one of his own dis ciples?

When reading this collection of " true sayings " of the Prophet (which are after all often ascribed to him without any authority or foundation) one is shocked both at the credulity and the lack of love

1 Compare the two statements facing this chapter; also the Deferences to " The Gospel," in Ch apter IX.

for veracity in this greatest of all Moslem apolo gists. If even Al-Ghazali handled Tradition so carelessly as to ascribe to Mohammed so much that is altogether puerile, fabulous and often immoral, what confidence can we put in other and later tra dition-mongers and how can we clear Al-Ghazali from the charge of using pious falsehood?

We add another fact of great interest in regard to his writings. Al-Ghazali exercised a command ing influence on Jewish thought in the Middle Ages. In the appendix is a list of some of the translations of his books made in Hebrew. Jewish students of philosophy, including Maimonides, drew many of their theories from the Maqasid and his other works. Al-Ghazali’s attacks on philos ophy were imitated by Judah ha-Levy in his Cumri; but it was chiefly his ethical teaching rather than through his philosophy that Al-Ghazali at tracted the Jewish thinkers. Broyde says, " He approached the ethical ideal of Judaism to such an extent that some supposed him to be actually drift ing in that direction, and his works were eagerly studied and used by Jewish writers. Abraham ibn Ezra borrowed from Al-Ghazali’s Misan al Amal his comparison between the limbs of the human body and the functionaries of a king, and used it for the subject of his beautiful admonition Yeshene Leb; Abraham ibn Dawud borrowed from the same work the parable used by Al-Ghazali to prove the difference in value between various branches of

science; and Simon Duran cites in his Keshet a pas sage from the Mozene ha-Iyyunim, which he calls Mozene ha-Hokmah":

The translations of his works into Hebrew were made as early as the thirteenth century. Not less than eleven Hebrew commentaries are known on the Maqasid. " Johanan Alemanno recommends Ghazali’s hermeneutic methods, and compares the order and graduation of lights in Ghazali’s theory with those of the theory of the cabalists."

In regard to science, Al-Ghazali’s views were naturally those of his contemporaries. His world was built on the Ptolemaic system. There are four elements only. Existence has three modes: the world of sense, the world of God’s eternal de cree, and the world of ideals or of God’s power. In dreams and visions we are in contact with the two other worlds. Al-Ghazali avoids the difficul ties of concrete Moslem teaching by this method. There may be things which are real and actual and yet do not belong to the world of sense. 2

Doctor Macdonald admirably summarizes his influence on Islam as four-fold. " First of all he led men back from mere scholastic dogma to a liv ing contact with the Koran and the Traditions as the true source of Islam. He might be called a Biblical theologian in our modern use of the word, understanding by Bible always the Moslem bible,

"Jewish Encyclopaedia," article "Ghazali."

• Macdonald.

namely the Koran. Nearly every paragraph of his Ihya begins with a Koran quotation, and his interpretation of the book is not a slavish following of the earlier commentators but a spiritual interpre tation of the text."

" In the second place he reintroduced into Islam the element of fear. In the earliest days, as for example in the Koran itself, the terrors of the day of judgment and the horrors of hell operated in order to lead men to repentance. Al-Ghazali em phasized this part of the Moslem teaching to the utmost, witness his little book Al-Durra al-Fak hira, which has to this day great acceptance among pious Moslems."

In the third place mysticism, already existing in Islam, but looked upon in many quarters as heret ical, received its birthright through Al-Ghazali’s life and teachings, and from his day on held an assured position in orthodox Islam.

Lastly, he brought philosophy within the range of the ordinary mind, warning the people against its dangers as well as showing them its fundamental principles and above all illustrating through his writings how true philosophy and true Islam are not contradictory. In this respect he resembles Raymond Lull who also desired to use philosophy as the handmaid of Christianity. 1

1 In regard to the influence of Al-Ghazali’s writings, R. Gosche remarks: " It is characteristic how his influence has spread. The later mystical portions of his Ihya have es

Macdonald thinks that of these four phases of his work and influence the first and the third were undoubtedly the most important. These alone made him a reformer of the first rank in the history of Islam.

pecially influenced Mohammedan circles in India. His two works on philosophy exerted influence in Spain and among later Jewish writers, for the best manuscripts of the Tahafut are found in Maghrabi character."