Adapting and Writing Language Lessons/Appendix O

by Earl W. Stevick

APPENDIX O TO CHAPTER 5

PART OF A LEARNER'S SYNOPSIS OF KIRUNDI STRUCTURE

(with Raymond Setukuru)

The Thai synopsis (Appendix M) was written in 1970-71, and the Swahili synopsis (Appendix N) was first drafted in 1967. The Kirundi synopsis, of which this appendix contains a part, was written still earlier, in 1963, as an unexpected consequence of a decision to try to teach students to use tone in speaking the language. Kirundi tones are not numerous, but the tone on any given syllable, particularly in the verb forms, changes in ways that are both puzzling to the foreigner and grammatically significant to native speakers. A series of individual grammar notes, distributed among the 30 units of the course, simply would not have been effective.

What is reproduced below is the grammatical section of the synopsis. Vowels, consonants and tones are treated in other sections. These materials illustrate a physical arrangement of examples which is different from that used in Swahili synopsis (pp. 272 ff.), and also show how a synopsis can deal with a type of structural problem which tends to elude the student because tone is not as real for him as vowels and consonants are.

A LEARNER'S SYNOPSIS OF KIRUNDI STRUCTURE:

Kirundi is the principal language of Burundi. It shares a high degree of mutual intelligibility with Kinyarwanda, the language of Rwanda. Considered together, the cluster Kirundi-Kinyarwanda ranks third among Bantu languages, after Swahili and Lingala, with respect to number of speakers. There are however two important differences between Swahili and Lingala on the one hand and Kirundi—Kinyarwanda on the other: (1) Swahili and Lingala are spoken over very wide areas, and a high proportion of their speakers have some other Bantu language as the mother tongue; Kirundi-Kinyarwanda is spoken in a relatively small area, as the first language. (2) Swahili and Lingala are relatively free of troublesome complexities for the learner; Kirundi and Kinyarwanda are full of them. The two books in this series which are concerned with Swahili and Lingala set out the grammar of those languages in the form of a series of individual notes, distributed throughout the units of the course. The present volume presents the details of Kirundi grammar in the same way. In addition, however, this synopsis has been prepared, first of all to provide orientation for those who plan to use the entire book, and secondarily for the student whose desire is to learn as much as possible about the language in the shortest time. Only the most important features of the grammar are mentioned at all, and the vocabulary used in the examples has intentionally been kept small. The exercises, with answers given in square brackets at the right, are not intended to make this synopsis into an auto-instructional program, but only to give the reader an opportunity to participate if he desires to do so, and to keep constant check on his understanding of the text.

The analysis on which this synopsis is based is found in Essai de Grammaire Rundi, (Tervuren: Musée Royal, 1959) by A.E. Meeussen. Certain key ideas concerning style of treatment have been acquired over the years from many teachers and colleagues, especially William E. Welmers.

The problems which are faced by a non—Bantu student of Kirundi may be classified under the three traditional headings of phonology, morphology, and syntax. 'Phonology' has to do with all aspects of pronunciation, but without consideration for the grammatical function or the dictionary meaning of what is pronounced. 'Morphology' is a description of the meaningful units of the language (prefixes, roots, stems, etc.) and of the ways in which they combine with one another within single 'words'. 'Syntax' continues this description up to the levels of what are usually called 'phrases' and 'sentences'.

This synopsis concentrates on two of the most complex parts of Kirundi structure: (1) the morphology of the verb, and (2) the pronunciation of the vowels and consonants.

I. PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF KIRUNDI GRAMMAR

Subject prefixes, object prefixes, roots and stems. The kinds of meaningful elements which may be found in any one Kirundi Verb form are both numerous and highly diverse. There are three, however, at which the student should look first, both because they serve as useful landmarks in the description of complicated verb forms, and because they correspond closely with familiar categories of Indo—European grammar. These three kinds of elements are (1) subject prefixes, (2) object prefixes and (3) roots.

The order in which these components of the verb have been named is the order in which they occur within a word. The most central of the three is the root:

tuduuga...	'we climb ...'
tugeend ...	'we go ...'

These two words differ in meaning in a way which is apparently close to the difference between English 'climb' and 'go'. They differ in form by the difference between /-duug-/ and /-geend-/. The forms /-duug-/ and /-geend—/ may thus be identified with approximately the same meanings as those for which 'climb' and 'go' are used in English. Further investigation of Kirundi would disclose no basis for recognizing any more divisions within either of these forms; they are therefore what the linguist calls ROOTS. Every language has a large stock of roots.

What is the root in each of these verb forms:

tubona...	'we see...'	[-bon-]
tugura...	'we buy...'	[-gur-]
tugoroora...	'we iron...'	[-goroor-]

Each Kirundi verb form has one and only one root. A root

may have any of several shapes, some of which are:

-C-	(single consonant)	-v-	'to go from'
-VC-	(vowel and consonant)	-íg-	'to study, learn'
-CVC-	(one short vowel)	-kor-	'to work, do'
-CV1V1C-	(one long vowel)	-duug-	'to climb'
-V1CV2C-	(two vowels, which may or may not be alike, separated by a consonant)	-andik-	'to write'

What is the root in each of these forms?

tuva...	we go from...	[—v-]
bava...	they go from...	[—v—]
baja...	they go...	[-j-]
baba...	they live...	[-b-]
bakora...	they do...	[—kor—]
baandika...	they write...	[-andik—]

In each group of three words, state which two have roots of the same general shape (i.e. —CVC—, —VC—, etc.):

bagura
bagoroora	[—goroor—]
Bamesuura	[—mesuur—]
baba	[-b-]
babona
bava	[—v—]

By far the most common shapes for roots are -CVC- and -CV₁V₁C-.

In Kirundi, a verb root is always followed by one or more suffixes:

-som-	'to read'
-som-a	(used in certain verb forms)
-som-ye	(used in certain other verb forms)
-som-e	(used in still other forms)
-som-eesh-	(a non—final suffix with causative (meaning) to cause to read)

What is the final suffix in each of these forms?

tugoroora	'we iron'	[-a]
bagura	'they buy'	[-a]
bagure	'that they may buy'	[—e]
tugeende	'that we may go'	[-e]

The second of each of these pairs of verb forms contains one non—final suffix. what is it?

babona	'they see'
babonana	'they see each other'	[-an—]
turima	'we cultivate'
turimiisha	'we cause to cultivate'	[—iish-]

Except in the simplest imperative forms, the root is preceded by one or more prefixes of various kinds:

som—a	'read'
ba-som-a	'they read'
nti-ba—som-á	'they don't read'

Verb prefixes will be dealt with more fully below.

In discussion of Kirundi verbs, it is expedient to use, in addition to 'root', the terms STEM and BASE. The STEM of a Kirundi verb form is defined as the root plus all suffixes.

The BASE of a Kirundi verb is defined as the root plus all suffixes except the final suffix.

Most kinds of Kirundi verb forms must contain, in addition to the stem, a subject prefix:

m-vuga	'I speak'
u—vuga	'you (sg) speak'
a-vuga	'he/she speaks'
tu—vuga	'we speak'
mu-vuga	'you (pl) speak'
ba-vuga	'they speak'

It will be noted that the subject prefixes stand for combinations of person (first, second, third) and number (singular, plural):

	Singular	Plural
1.	n- (or m-) 'I'	tu- 'we'
2.	u- 'you (sg)'	mu- 'you (pl)'
3.	a- 'he, she'	ba- 'they'

If /asoma/ is translated 'he, she reads', what is the translation of

/musoma/?	['you (pl.) read']
/basoma/?	['they read']
/nsoma/?	['I read']

If /bageenda/ is one translation is equivalent of 'they go' write the corresponding translation equivalent of:

'I go'	[ngeenda]
'you (pl.) go'	[mugeenda]
'we go'	[tugeenda]
'he/she goes'	[ageenda]

Differentiation of person and number are familiar from the study of non—Bantu languages. But these six prefixes are used only when the subject is personal. For nonpersonal third person subjects (and for some personal ones) Kirundi uses other subject prefixes. Just which one is chosen depends on the identity of the noun that is the subject:

inyama ziraziimvye	'meat is expensive'
umukaáte uraziimvye	'bread is expensive'
ibiríibwa biraziimvye	'foodstuffs are expensive'
imicúungwa iraziimvye	'oranges are expensive'

For this reason, it will be necessary in this discussion of verb forms, to glance briefly at the nouns of the language.

In some, but not all cases, the student will soon learn to perceive an alliterative relationship between the subject prefix of a verb and the prefix that begins the noun subject of that verb.

After each of the words in the list, write either /iraziimvyye/ or /uraziimvye/ or /biraziimvye/:

Umukaáte	______________	'Bread is expensive.'	[uraziimvye]
Imikaáte	______________	'Breads are expensive.'	[iraziimvye]
Ibiintu	______________	'Things are expensive.'	[biraziimvye]
Imidúga	______________	'Cars are expensive.'	[iraziimvye]
Ibitabo	______________	'Books are expensive.'	[biraziimvye]
Umudúga	______________	'The car is expensive.'	[uraziimvye]

Generally, about half of the prefixes are used with singular meaning, and most of the rest are used with plural meaning. Most noun stems, then,occur with at least two prefixes—one singular and one plural:

umucuúngwa	'orange'
imicuúngwa	'oranges'
ikiintu	'thing'
ibiintu	'things'
izína	'name'
amazína	'names'
etc.

In general,non—personal noun stems that have /umu—/ in the singular have /imi-/ in the plural, stems that have /ik1-/ in the singular have /ibi-/ in the plural, and so forth, but there are some exceptions.

What is the plural form that corresponds to each of the following singular nouns:

umutí	'drug'	____________	'drugs'	[imití]
ikiintu	'thing'	____________	'things'	[ibiintu]
umushuumba	'servant'	____________	'servants'	[abashuumba]
umutéetsi	'cook'	____________	'cooks'	[abatéetsi]
igituúngwa	'domestic animal'	____________	'dom. animals'	[ibitúungwa]
umudúga	'car'	____________	'cars'	[imidúga]

What is the singular form that corresponds to each of these plurals?

ibiintu	'things'	____________	'thing'	[ikiintu]
abashuumba	'servants'	____________	'servant'	[umushuumba]
abakáraáni	'clerks'	____________	'clerk'	[umukáraáni]
ibiraato	'shoes'	____________	'shoe!	[ikiraato]
iminwe	'fingers'	____________	'finger'	[umunwe]
imipaka	'boundaries'	____________	'boundary'	[umupaka]

Matching of the subject prefix of the verb with the prefix of the noun subject is called CONCORD. 'Concord' affects the prefixes of several other kinds of words also. Nouns that are alike with respect to the concordial prefixes that go with them are said to be in the same CLASS. There are eighteen such 'classes' in Kirundi. (Remember that in this sense the singular form /ikiintu/ 'thing' and the plural /ibiintu/ 'things' are in different 'classes'.)

In the following pairs of sentences, the eoncordial prefixes have been underlined. State whether the two nouns (double underlining) are in the same class, or in different classes:

Ikiraato	caanje	kirǐhe?	'Where is my shoe.'	[Same class]
Ikigoori	caanje	kirǐhe?	'Where is my maize?'
Ikiratto	caanje	kirǐhe?	'Where is my shoe?'	[Same Class]
Igitabo	caanje	kirǐhe?	'Where is my book?'
Ikiraato	caawe	kirǐhe?	'where is your shoe?' [different classes]
Ikiínga	ryaawe	rirǐhe?	'Where is your bicycle?'
Umugeenzi	waawe	arǐhe?	'Where is your friend?'	[different classes]
Umudúga	waawe	arǐhe?	'where is your car?'
Impuúzu	yaanje	irǐhe?	'Where is my cloth?'	[different classs]
Impuúzu	yaanje	ziirǐhe?	'where are my clothes/cloths?'

An object prefix, unlike a subject prefix , is never required in a Kirundi verb, but it is optional in most forms. The object prefix reflects the class of the object of the verb, just as the subject prefix reflects the class of the subject. For most classes, the subject and object prefixes are identical in shape. The object prefix follows the subject prefix and stands immediately before the stem:

tubiroónke	'that we should receive them' (e.g. /ibiintu/ 3things')
babiroónke	'that they should receive them!
bakiroónke	'that they should receive it' (e.g. /ig;intu/ Ithe thing!)
baziróonke	'that they should receive them' (e.g. /impúuzu/ 'clothes')

The most striking difference in the use of subject and object prefixes is that the subject prefix must be used whether or not there is an explicit noun subject, while the object prefix is not often used unless the noun object itself is omitted. In this respect the object prefix of a Bantu verb is similar to the object pronouns of many European languages. A list of subject and object prefixes is found below. The numbers are those which are customarily assigned to these classes in the study of Bantu languages generally, and which will be used throughout this course.

	Basic form of subject prefix	Basic form of object prefix
reflexive		-íi-
1 sg.	n-	-ny-
1 pl.	tu-	-tu-
2 sg.	u-	-ku-
2 pl.	mu-	-ba
Class 1 (3 sg. personal)	a-	-mu-
Class 2 (3 pl. personal)	ba-	-ba-
3	u-	-wu-
4	i-	-yi-
5	ri-	-ri-
6	ya-	-ya-
7	ki-	-ki-
8	bi-	-bi-
9	i-	-yi-
10	zi-	-zi-
11	ru-	-ru-
12	ka-	-ka-
13	tu-	-tu-
l4	bu-	-bu-
15	ku-	-ku-
16	ha-	-ha-
l8	mu-

Choose the correct object prefix for the second sentence in each pair. The class number for the noun object is given in parentheses.

Baguriisha ibitooke. (8)	Ba____guriisha.	[Babiguriisha.]
'They sell bananas.'	They sell them.
Baguriisha ibitabo.	Ba____guriisha.	[-bi-]
'They sell books.'
Baguriisha imiduga. (4)	Ba____guriisha.	[-Vi-]
'They sell cars.'
Baguriisha impúzu. (10)	Ba____guriisha.	[-Zi-]
'They sell clothes.'
Baguriisha amégi. (6)	Ba____guriisha.	[-ya-]
'They sell eggs.'

What is the grammatical term for the underlined part of each word?

Babigura.	[object prefix]
Ba}bigura.	[subject prefix]
Babibona.	[stem]
Babiguriisha.	[non—final suffix]
Tubikeneye.	[subject prefix]
Tuyikeneye.	[object prefix]
Bazigoroora.	[final suffix]
Babiguriisha.	[base]

Pick out the part of each word that is named by the grammatical term:

The subject prefix in /bagura/.	[bagura]
‘they sell‘
The object prefix in /tubibona/.	[tubibona]
‘we see them!
The stem in /tuyarimiisha/.	[tuyarimiisha]
'we cause them to cultivate'
The base in /tuyarimiisha/.	[tuyarimiisha]
The non-final suffix in /tuyarimiisha/. [tuyarimiisha]
The root in /tuyarimiisha/.	[tuyarimiisha]

The separate verb forms which may be constructed on a single verb base in Kirundi number in the thousands. Fortunately, the system by which they are formed is not so complicated as this might suggest, Many of them differ from one another only in the identity of the subject and/or object prefixes which they contain. In general, the choice of one of these prefixes rather than another does not have any effect on the meaning of the remaining part of the verb form, or the grammatical structures in which it may be used. For this reason, it is possible to make a preliminary division of the thousands of forms into about 60 'sets'. A SET of forms is defined for purposes of this discussion as including all verb forms which differ from one another only with respect to their bases and their subject and object prefixes.

Which two in each of these groups of three verbs are in the same ‘set‘? (The base of each verb has been underlined.)

bazootaangura	'they will begin'	[bazootaangura]
bazookora	'they will do'	[bazookora]
bakora	'they (Will) do'
ndoondera	'I'm looking for'	[ndoondera]
ndora		[ndora]
nzoogeenda	'I will go'
ntibamesúura	'they don't launder'	[ntibamesúura]
ndaba	'I live'
ntituvugá	'we don't speak'	[ntiduvugá]
bageenda	'they go'
bageendé	'that they should go'	[bageendé]
mutaangúre	'that you should begin'	[mutaangúre]

There are 21 subject prefixes and 21 object prefixes, plus the possibility of the absence of an object prefix, so that for any given base the number of forms in one set is as large as 21 x 21 or 441. There are over 60 such sets, which means a total of over 25,000 forms with any one stem.

The sets of verb forms may most clearly be described in terms of six dimensions. These will be described in order of

the number of contrasting sets in which they are involved.

Dimension 1: Affirmative vs. negative. This is a two-way contrast. The overt representation of the contrast is either the initial prefix /nti—/, or the non-initial prefix /-ta-/.

The former is used with all indicative forms (see Dimension 2), the latter with all non—indicative forms. All 60 sets are committed on this dimension. That is, it is possible to say definitely of any set either that it is affirmative or that it is negative. The meaning difference is affirmation vs. negation.

For each verb form two proposed translations are given. Pick the correct one:

ntibaboná	'they see' 'they don't see'	[they don't see]
tumesuura	'we launder' 'we don‘t launder'	[we launder]
batageenda	'they having gone' 'they not having gone'	[they not having gone]
ntidukorá	'we work' 'we don't work'	[we don't work]

Dimension 2: Mood. This is a four-way contrast. The overt representation of three of the four categories is found in the tones; the fourth is characterized by a vowel before the subject prefix. All 60 sets are committed on this dimension. The four categories differ with respect to the syntactic positions in which they are used: indicative forms are used in main clauses, relative forms as modifiers of substantives, autonomous forms as substantives, and participial forms in other dependent verb positions.

Most typically, the relative form has a tone on the syllable after the beginning of the root.

Choose the better rough translation for each verb, and say whether it is INDICATIVE, or RELATIVE:

baboná	'they see' who sees	['who see': REL.]
babona	'they see' '... who see'	['they see': IND.]
ageenda	'he goes' '... who goes'	['he goes': IND.]
ageendá	'he goes' '... who goes'	['.. who goes': REL.]
bamesúura	'they launder' '... who launder'	'...who launder': REL.]
bataangura	'they begin' '... who begin'	['they begin': IND.]
ziziimvye	'they are expensive' '...which are expensive'	['they are expensive']
ziziimvyé	'they are expensive' '... which are expensive'	['which are expensive']	biziimbúutse	'they are cheap' '... which are cheap'	['which are cheap']

Participial forms have a tone on the first vowel after the first consonant. Choose the better rough translation for each verb, and say whether it is INDICATIVE or PARTICIPIAL:

bábona	'they see' 'they seeing'	['they seeing': PART.]
amesuura	'he launders' 'he laundering'	['he launders':IND.]
amésuura	'he launders' 'he laundering'	['he laundering':PART.]
ushobora	'you are able' 'you being able'	['you are able':IND.]
ushóbora	'you (sg.) are able' 'you being able'	['you being able':PART.]
múshobora	'you (pl.) are able' 'you being able'	['you (pl.) being able': PART.]

Choose the nearest translation, and say whether each verb form is INDICATIVE, RELATIVE, or PARTICIPIAL:

babona	'they see' '... who see' 'they seeing'	['they seeing':PART.]
baboná	'... who see' 'they see' 'they seeing'	['... who see':REL-]
babona	'... who see' 'they see' 'they seeing'	['they see': IND.]
izíimbuutse	'it is cheap' '... which is cheap' 'it being cheap'	['it being cheap': PART.]
bashobora	'they are able' '... who are able' 'they being able'	[... who are able': REL.]

The autonomous mood has an extra vowel before the subject prefix. Choose the better translation, and state whether each form is RELATIVE, or AUTONOMOUS:

baboná	'... who see' 'ones who see'	['... who see':REL.]
ababóna	'... who see' 'ones who see'	['ones who see':AUT.]
ziziimvyé	'... which are expensive' 'ones that are expensive'	['... which are expensive': REL.]
izizíimvye	'... which are expensive' 'ones that are expensive'	['ones that are expensive': AUT.]
abaróondera	'... who seek' 'ones who seek'	['ones who seek':AUT.]
bagoróora	'... who iron' 'ones who iron'	['... who iron':REL.]

State whether the words in each pair differ according to NEGATION, (Dimension 1) or as to MOOD (Dimension 2):

bágeenda, bátageenda	[NEG.]
bageenda, ntibageendá	[NEG.]
bageenda, bageendá	[MOOD]
zítaziimvye, zitazíimvye	[MOOD]

Dimension 3: Time relations. This is treated in Meeussen's tables as a seven-way distinction. The morphs which represent the members of the contrast are prefixes made up of vowels and consonants except that the hodiernal-hesternal distinction depends on tone. These prefixes stand just before the object prefix or before the stem if there is no object prefix. All 60 sets are committed on this dimension. The meanings have to do with matters some of which are usually classified as 'tense', some as 'aspect and one as 'mood' (in a sense different from that in which we have named our 'Dimension 2'). The tenses have to do with the placement of an action along the time axis. Kirundi distinguishes four of these: immediate (past, present or future), past-today (also called the 'hodiernal'), past-before-today (also called the 'hesternal' tense) and non-immediate future.

The aspectual time relations are those which have to do with the shape of an action in time. One of these is the inceptive, which is used for an action that is just beginning; the other is the persistive, which calls attention to the fact that an action is still going on.

The form with modal meaning that is included in Dimension 3 is the conditional, which is roughly equivalent to English verb phrases with would or might.

All seven of these forms are classed together within a single dimension because they are mutually exclusive with one another. Also, as has already been pointed out, they are all represented by prefixes (or, in the case of the immediate tense, lack of a prefix) in one and the same slot in the verb structure.

The tense that refers to past actions within the present day (the 'hodiernal' tense) is characterized by an /-a-/ immediately after the subject prefix:

nkora...	'I do....'
nakoze...	'I did.... (sometime today)'

Most subject prefixes have a slightly different form when they stand before a vowel:

asoma...	'he/she reads....'
yasomye...	'he/she read....(sometime today)'
tugeenda...	'we go....'
twagiiye...	'we went....(sometime today)'
mugeenda...	'you (pl.) go....'
mwagiiye...	'you (pl.) went....(sometime today).'
ugeenda...	'you (sg.) go....'
wagiiye...	'you (sg.) went....(sometime today).'

Choose the better approximate translation, and state whether the verb is IMEDIATE tense, or HODIERNAL tense:

Nataanguye....	'I began...(sometime today).' 'I begin...'	[hodiernal]
Nkora kazi.	'I work.' 'I worked...(sometime today).'	[immediate]
Twakoze kazi.	'we work.' 'We worked...(sometime today)'	[hodiernal]
Naboonye....	'I see.' 'I saw...(sometime today)'	[hodiernal]
Nkoze....	'I've just done...' 'I did...(sometime today).'	[immediate]
Baasomye....	'They've just read...' 'They read...(sometime earlier today).'	[hodiernal]
Basomye....	'They've just read...' 'They read...(sometime earlier today).'	[immediate]

The hesternal or 'yesterday', tense differs from the hodiernal in having a tone on the subject prefix.

Choose the appropriate time expression, and state whether each of the following Verb forms is HESTERNAL or HODIERNAL:

Baáboonye ikí?	'What did they see	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	(today) (before today)	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	?'	[HESTERNAL]
Baaboonye iki?	&nsbp;					[HODIERNAL]
Mwaariiye ikí?	'What did you (pl.) eat	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	(today) (before today)	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	?'	[HODIERNAL]
Baévuuyehe?	'Where did they come from	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	(today) (before today)	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	?'	[HESTERNAL]

The immediate tense may be used in talking about the immediate future, but verbs that refer to more remote future actions are characterized by the prefix /—zoo—/.

State whether each of these verbs in IMMEDIATE, or (nonimmediate) FUTURE:

bageenda	[IMM.]
bazoogeenda	[FUT.]
tuzooshika	[FUT.]

For purposes of this synopsis, the persistive, inceptive, and conditional forms will be omitted.

Dimension 4: Imperfective vs. perfective aspect. This is a two-way contrast. The overt representation of the contrast is found at the very end of the verb form: each imperfective ends in some consonant plus /—a/, while the corresponding perfective ends in /—e/; this /—e/ is preceded either by a consonant different from that of the imperfective, or by the imperfective consonant plus /y/. Some verbs have irregularly formed perfectives, however. Perfective forms are used when the action is regarded as being complete, imperfectives are used for actions in progress, or actions mentioned without regard to completeness, but the English translation is not a reliable guide as to which actions are 'considered complete' in Kirundi. In all, 44 sets are committed on this dimension; the sets that are not are the inceptives and the futures (Dimension 3), which have the consonants and final vowels of the imperfectives.

State whether each of these verbs is PERFECTIVE, or

IMPERFECTIVE:
ndahageze	'I've arrived here'	[PERF.]
urakeneye	'you need'	[PERF.]
uzootaangura	'you will begin'	[IMPERF.]
ndoondera	'I'm looking for'	[IMPERF.]
bararima	'they cultivate'	[IMPERF.]
sinuumviise	'I don‘t understand'	[PERF.]

Notice that the English equivalent of a perfective form may or may not sound as though it refers to a completed action or process.

Dimension 5: Tone Class. Virtually all verbs in Kirundi fall into one of two tone classes. The overt difference between the two is found in the presence of a high tone in certain forms of one verb, and the absence of high tone in the corresponding forms of other Verbs. Only 13 sets are committed with respect to this dimension, 8 of which are the affirmative and negative inceptives. The difference is completely without grammatical meaning.

Given below are three forms of a high verb, and the corresponding forms of a low verb. State which verb is in the HIGH tone class, and which is in the LOW tone class.

naboonye	'I saw (today)'
kubóna	'to see'	[HIGH]
baboná	'...who see'
narimye	'I cultivated (today)'
kurima	'to cultivate'	[LOW]
barimá	'...who cultivate'

Do the same for the two verbs /-taangura/ and /—goroora/:

abatáangura	'those who begin'
twaagoroorá	'we ironed (today)'
bazóotáangura	'...who will begin'
twaatáanguye	'we began (today)'
abagóroora	'those who iron'
bazóogóroora	'...who will iron'

Is the stem /—taangura/ in the HIGH class, or the LOW?	[HIGH]
Is the stem /-goroora/ in the HIGH class, or the LOW?	[LOW]

Dimension 6: Linkage. This is a two-way distinction. Its most characteristic mark is the prefix /-ra-/, which is used with 'disjunct' forms. Forms that are not disjunct are 'conjunct'. Only ten sets are committed with respect to this dimension. The significance of the distinction is grammatical: the conjunct must be followed by some kind of object or other word to which it is closely tied. The disjunct may be used without a following object, or with a following object where there is no close connection between verb and object.

Place a period after each disjunct form, to signify that it can be the last word in a sentence. Place three dots (...) after the conjunct forms, to signify that it must be followed by something further.

navúze	'I spoke (before today)'	[...(conjunct)]
narávuze	'I spoke (before today)'	[.(disjunct)]
turiiye	'we've eaten'	[...(conjunct)]
turaríiye	'we've eaten?'	[.(disjunct)]

The intersection of these six dimensions with one another accounts for over 90 per cent of the forms of any Kirundi verb. There are however a few sets of forms which lie outside this framework. Most important are the subjunctive, the infinitive, and the imperative. These are differentiated for Dimension 1 (affirmative vs. negative), and the infinitive shows the tone Class of a verb (Dimension 5), but they are not marked for mood, tense, aspect, or linkage. These sets need not be discussed further in a brief synopsis.

The discussion of subject and object prefixes showed one important role which concordial agreement plays in the operation of the Kirundi language. A list of concordial classes was given on p. x , together with a list of the prefixes which represent those classes where the subjects of verbs are concerned.

Class concords also appear in many other parts of the language:

Class 8:	Ibiriíbwa mufisé ni inikí?	('Foods that—you-have are which?')
Class 10:	Impuúzu mufisé ni inkí?	('Clothes that-you-have are which?')
Class 8:	Zana ibiriíbwa.	'Bring foodstuffs.'
	Ngiigi.	'Here they are.'
Class 10:	Zana impuzú.	'Bring [articles of] clothing.'
	Ngiibi.	'Here they are.'
Class 3:	Umudúga waawe ni mwiizá.	'Your car is good.'
Class 12:	Akazi kaawe ni keeza.	'Your work is good.'

Compare these two short dialogues, which are identical except for the first noun and the concords that depend upon it.

Barafíse impuúzu?	'[Do] they have [articles of] clothing?'
Eegó, barazíise.	'Yes, they have them'
Bafise nyiínshi?	'Do they have many?'
Oya, bafise nké.	'No, they have few.'
Ni ziingáahé?	'How many are there.' (‘[They] are how—many?‘)
Zitaanu gusa.	'Five only.'
Barafíse ibitabo?	'Do they have books?'
Eegó, barabífise.	'Yes, they have them.'
Bafise vyiínshi?	'Do they have many?'
Oya, bafise baké.	'No, they have few.'
Ni biingáahé?	('[They] are how-many?')
Bitaanu gusa.	'Five only.'

Now underline the concordial prefixes in the following conversation:

Bafise amakáraamú	'Do they have pens/pencils?'
Eegó barayéfise.	[—ya—]
Bafise meénshi?	[ m—]
Oya, bafise maké.	[ma-]
Ni aangáahé?	[aa—]
Ataanu gusa.	[a—]

This concludes the portion of the synopsis which is devoted to grammar.