Africa by Élisée Reclus/Volume 4/Chapter 11

by Élisée Reclus

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CHAPTER XI.

KILIMA-NJARO, KENIA, MOMBAZ, AND MALINDI COAST.

Masai Land.

HE maritime region which stretches-north of the territory facing Zanzibar, and which is bounded on one side by the Pangani, on the other by the Tana, holds a political position analogous to that of the southern lands. Here also the narrow zone of coastlands was recently placed under the authority, or at least the suzerainty, of the Sultan of Zanzibar, while the seaports are drawn henceforth within the sphere of foreign trade. The inland tribes also, although really independent, have in the same way been assigned by international treaty to European influences. The Germans are the future masters in the Pangani basin, while the northern area of drainage has become a British possession.

At the other end of the continent the question of connecting the two great French dependencies of Algeria and Senegal by means of a trans-Sabarian railway has already been more than once seriously discussed. In the same way British politicians foresee the day when it nay be possible to traverse north-east Africa, from Alexandria to Mombaz, without ever quitting territory directly or indirectly subject to the Anglo-Saxon race. But the two regions which have thus to be brought under the respective dominion of France and England in the west and east of Africa present the greatest contrast in their physical and ethnical conditions. From the Mauritanian plateaux to the banks of the Senegal, there stretches the unknown und almost inaccessible wilderness of the Sahara, whereas from Egypt to the Usambara uplands there follows an alternating succession of unfertile and productive, of desert and populous lands, already traversed if not yet thoroughly explored by the white man. The most famous historic river of the continent, its largest lake, and one of the two loftiest mountain masses in Africa, are all comprised within the limits of this vast domain, the two extremities of which have already been brought under the control of England. The central region can scarcely fail to be assigned to the same power as protector of Egypt, should the expedition under Stanley succeed in again bringing the whole of the Upper Nile basin within the sphere of European influence. Doubtless all these anticipations were made when Great Britain took virtual possession of the territory which rises from the coast at Mombaz towards the elevated plateaux enclosing the great depression of Luke Victoria Nyanza. This territory being still undefined with any accuracy except on its east side, towards the sea, any attempt would necessarily be premature to give even an approximate idea

Fig. 103. — Chief routes of explorers in the Kilima-Njaro Region.

either of its superficial area or of its population. It may, however, be stated in a general way that the rectangular region comprised between the Indian Ocean, the eastern edge of the plateaux sloping westwards towards Lake Nyanza, and two parallel lines, one passing to the north of Mount Kilima-Njaro and Usambara, the other drawn from Mouut Kenia to the Tana estuary, presents an area of about 55,000 square miles, According to the reports of Krapf, Fischer, Thomson, and Johnston, the population of this territory may be roughly estimated at nearly two millions.

 

Physical Features.

In 1885 the trader and explorer, Fischer, skirted the east foot of the dividing range towards the Victoria Nyanza basin, and found that this range, forming the Fig. 104. — Line of Volcanic Fault, Masai Land. outer scarp of a plateau, runs with great regularity in the direction from south to north. This long line of cliffs, rising abruptly above the plain, very probably represents the ancient shore-line of a now vanished inland sea, of which nothing remains except a system of stagnant waters, lakes, and saline wastes, covering a large space at the foot of the escarpments. The volcanic cones occurring at intervals along the edge of the plateau are the flues of the underground fires formerly fed by the chemical ingredients which were elaborated in the depths below the bed of this extensive lacustrine basin. The still flooded depressions, mainly disposed in the same direction from north to south, stand far below the level of the rim of the tableland, which has a mean elevation of about 6,500 feet above the sea, whereas one of these depressions rises scarcely more than 2,000 feet above that level. A sort of trough or deep lacustrine cavity, with no present outflow, thus separates the elevated western plateau from the raised platform on which stand the great igneous masses of Kilima-Njaro, Kenia, and their associates.

So far as is at present known, the chain of lakes terminates southwards in the saline Manyara basin, which however has not yet been visited, and is known only from the reports of the natives. Some 60 miles north of this "natron lake" lies another, which is commanded on the south side by the extinct volcano baring the name of Dunye-Ngai, or "Heavenly Mountain" (7,200 feet), and on the east by the imposing Mount Gelei, nearly twice as high (14,000 feet). The "Minaret," as the terminal cone of Dunye-Ngai is called, is said to constantly emit smoke, the summit being wrapped in a dark vapoury cloud even in the fairest weather. The rumbling of the underground thunders is continually heard like VOLCANOES. 889 the roll of distant artillery. No lavas, however, are discharged, although the vapours floating round the peak have a ruddy hue during the night. At the foot of the mount^iin, and alung the margin of the lake, thermal waters bubble up at a temperature hot enough for the caravan jKJOple to cook thtir food in. Northwards stretches a boundless saline steppe, maintaining in unbroken monotony the dead level formerly produced by the lacustrine alluvial depositn. This is the dreary Dogiluni wilderness, which is everywhere strewn with fragments of obsidian resembling broken pieces of glass bottles. Westwards rise the blackish escarpments of the plateau, which here takes the name of l^Iau, while on the opposite side the plains are skirted by the no less imposing rocky walls of the Eapte and Kiluyu tablelands. In the midst of these rugged ramparts are developed numerous bays or inlets, where the bed of the long dried-up basin contrasts sharply with the rich verdure of the headlands. Here also the regular line of cliffs forming the scarp of the plateau is broken by magnificent ignebus cones, con- spicuous amongst which is the Dunye la-Nyuki, largest and southernmost of the group. Seen from a distance this volcano appears to terminate in a great crater, one side of which has been blown away and in the centre of which has risen a secondary cone encircled as by a wall or embankment by the southern half of the crater rim. Farther north stands out the lofty Dunye Longonok, or " Mountain of the Big Pit," ascended in 1884 by Joseph Thomson, who on reaching the top found him- self on the sharp rim of an enormous pit, apparently from 1,500 to 2,000 feet deep. " It was not, however, an inverted cone, as volcanic craters frequently are, but a great circular cavity with perfectly perpendicular walls, and about three miles in circumference, without a bresik in any part, though on the south-western side rose a peak several hundred foot above tlje general level of the rim. So perpen- dicular were the enclosing walls, that immediately in front of me I could not trace the descent owing to a slight angle near the top. So sharp also was the edge of this marvellous crater, that I literally sat astride on it, with one log dangling over the abyss internally, and the other down the side of the mountain. The bottom of the pit seemed to be quite even and level, covered with acacia trees, the tops of which at that great depth had much the general aspect of a grass plain. There were no bushes or creepers to cover in the stern and forbidding walls, which were com • posed of beds of lava and conglomerate. The scene was of such an astounding character that I was completely fascinated, and felt under an almost irresistible impulse madly to plunge into the fearful chasm. Looking towards the north, the first sight that riveted my gaze was the glimmering, many-isled expanse of Naivasha, backed to the west by the Mau escarpment. To the east rose abruptly the plateau which we had so recently left, and over the bamboo-clad heights of Mianzi-ni could be seen tile higher masses of a splendid range of niountain«. To the south stretched the desert of Dogilani, with the less perfect but larger crater mass of Donye la-Xyuki. ^ly observations indicated a height of 8,300 feet ; the highest point, however, would be little short of 9,000 feet." * The natives assured the explorer that the great pit is inhabited by snakes of

• Throuffh Maaaikmd, p 332. enormous dimensions. They also speak of another remarkable pit in the neighbourhood, in which animals are immediately suffocated if by any chance they happen to full into it. This is doubt!ess due to an emanation of carbonic acid gas.

 

Lake Naivasha.

Lake Naivasha, also first explored by Thomson, is a shallow island-studded basin standing at an elevation of about 6,000 feet above the sea. It has no outflow,

Fig. 105. — Region between Zanzibar and Lake Nyanza.

evaporation balancing the contributions of several small affluents; yet its waters are sweet, which seems to indicate that this lacustrine basin is of recent origin. Its formation may perhaps be due to the damming up of the fluvial valley by some eruptions of lavas and ashes accumulating on the north and cast sides and separating the plain from the Upper Tana basin. In this reservoir there are no fish, which have probably been destroyed by the escape of mephitic gases.

The underground forces elsewhere quiescent or extinct, are still active in the district to the north-east of Naivasha. Tere rises the Dunye Buru, or "Steam LAKE BARINGO. 841 Mount-uin " nearly 9,000 feet hiji^h, which is pierced by " steam-holes," from which at short intervals and with remarkable regularity are puffed or hissed out clouds of vapour, accompanied sometimes by a gurgliug sometimes by a rumbling noise. The Masai approach these orifices with superstitious awe, custing in tufts of grass in order to propitiate the troubled hpirits of the earth. They also collect the crimson- red clay of the rock decomposing through the action of the steam, and smean themselves all over with this ochre, which is supposed to have much virtue in conjuring the adverse fates. The mountain, on which the vent-holes have fre- quently been displaced, no longer preserves the typical fprm of a volcano. The numerous cones which have successively broken out and again subt'idcd in close proximity to each other, have at last been merged in a single irregular mass. Farther north, the depression the deepest part of which is occupied by the Naivasha basin, is bounded by a hilly plain where the bosses of eruptive scoriae have also become intermingled in a confused mass. All these formations are more- over broken into polygonal sections by numerous lines of faults or fissures. These are disposed with such regularity that in many places the effect is produced of the moats and ramparts of fortified lines. In all the cavities are seen the skeletons of thousands of dead trees, killed by some unknown cause, possibly by some eruption of mephitic gases, or rather, as Thomson suggests, through the decrease of the rainfall brought about by the slow modifications of the climate. Lake Barixgo. Beyond this desolate region of bare rocks and crevasses, the depressions of the valley are flooded by other lakes, such as Elmeteita and Nakuro. Seen from a dis- tance extensive tracts along the margin of Elmeteita seem to be diffused by a pinky glow, an effect caused by the multitudes of flamingoes frequenting these waters. A little to the north of the circular saline basin of Lake Nakuro, a small stream flow- ing northwards in the same direction as the general line of fault which skirts the western waterparting, winds between the two parallel plateaux as far as the southern extremity of Baringo or Mbaringo. Since the time of Speke's expedition this sheet of water was supposed to form the north-east gulf or inlet of Victoria Nyanza ; but it is now known to be completely isolated, occupying a closed basin about 200 square miles in superficial area. Yet although it has no visible outlet, its waters are perfectly fresh, without the least trace of salinity and teeming with animal life. Thomson, the first European by whom it has been visited, expresses his surprise that it does not increase in volume, rectiving as it does considerable contributions all the year round, even during the dry season. He found that from one period to the other the difference in the lacustrine level scarcely exceeded twenty-four inches, and to explain this slight annual oscillation, as well as the total absence of salt from the lake, he advances the theory of a possible underground emissary, through which the overflow may be carried off. But it would be pre- mature seriously to discuss this somewhat improbable hyjwthesis, until an accurate estimate has been made of the comparative quantity of water contributed by the affluents and lost by evaporation.

In the middle of the lake rises the island of Kirwan, inhabited by the Wakwafi, who cultivate the soil, rear cattle, sheep, and goats, and navigate the basin in canoes of a very peculiar type. "They are formed to hold only one man or two boys, and are composed of a remarkably light mimosa wood, found growing round

Fig. 106. — Lacustrine region west of Mount Kenia.

the lake in marshy places. It seems to be as light as cork. The component parts of the canoe are simply tied together in their rough state. I tried to get ferried over to the island, but the islanders believed I wanted to bewitch the place, and point blank refused to take me" (Thomson).

From the reports of the natives it is now known that in the unexplored regions north-cast of Baringo the line of fault stretches away for several hundred miles, broadening out in the direction of the great Zamburu (Samburu) alice swamp or lagoon. This unexplored basin appears to be encircled by tracts of pasturage, where the nomad Galla herdsmen have their southernmost camping-grounds. West of Baringo Thomson came upon the headstreams of the Wei-Wei river, which flows in the direction of this terminal depression, or of Lake Sûk, another large basin reported to exist in the same region.

 

Usambara and Bura Mountains.

East of the great volcanic fissure containing the flooded depressions of the salt and freshwater lakes following in a long line from Manyara to Zamburu, the whole land, apart from a few scattered salines, belongs to the oceanic area of drainage. Even the western slope of Kilima-Njaro, turned towards the interior of the continent, sends some of its waters to the rivers flowing eastward to the Indian Ocean. But this is a very rugged mountainous region, and in immediate

Fig. 107. — Kilima-Njaro and Nyka Uplands.

proximity to the coast begin the heights which rise continually higher and higher until in the mighty Kilima-Njaro they at last penetrate beyond the line of perpetual snows. The first hills visible from the sea are the Usambara uplands, an almost isolated granitic mass with mostly rounded crests, some of which attain an altitude of 5,000 feet. From the town of Bulua, which crowns one of these crests, a view is still commanded of the seaboard 60 miles distant, with its fringe of verdant vegetation and broken line of gulfs and headlands.

These uplands are followed towards the north-west by the Paré range, beyond which the horizon is broken by the Ugono ridge, dominating on the west the charming Lake Jipé, and north of which towers the imposing mass of the giant of African mountains. On the continually ascending plains, which extend from the coast at Mombaz towards Kilima-Njaro, the surface is strewn with granite eminences from 4,000 to 5,000 feet, which in several places are disposed in the form of regular ranges. Such peaks as Kilibasi, or Kilimabasi, that is, the "Solitary Mountain," the truncated cone of Kasigao, and Maungu with its half ruined crater, stand out in complete isolation like reefs or rocky islets in the midst of the sea. But Mount Ndara, called also Kilima-Kiburu, that is, the "Great Mountain," lying due west of Maungu, is flanked by a number of less elevated crests, giving to the whole group the aspect of a short Ibu continuous chain. Still farther west the plain stretching away towards Kilima-Njaro is dominated by a somewhat similar but more extensive group bearing the collective name of the Bura Mountains. But on every side — north, south, east, and west —

Fig. 108. — Kilima-Njaro.

all these secondary heights, whether isolated or grouped in clusters, disappear at some distance from Kilima-Njaro, leaving the monarch of African mountains to stand out in solitary grandeur.

 

Kilima-Njaro.

Kilima-Njaro, that is, the "White Mountain," as explained by Thomson, or more probably the "Demon's Mountain,"^[1] as interpreted by Johnston, attains an altitude estimated at from 18,800 to nearly 20,000 feet.^[2] It thus exceeds the KTMMA-NJARO. 845 Kamoroons by about -5,000, and the Abyasinian Siraen by 3,700 feet. It is also much loftier than Mount Wosha of Galluland, to which Antoine d'Abbadie assigns an altitude of 1().400 feet, and has no other rival on the African continent except Mount Keniu, which, however, uccording to Thomson, does not exceed 18,400 feet. Nevertheless Kilima-Njaro does not appear to have been known to the ancients, unless it was included in one of their numerous *' Mountains of the Moon." The first mention made of it, evidently from the reports of the Portu- guese visitors to Mombaz, is due to the Spanish geographer, Encizo, who calls it the " Ethiopijn Olympus," adding tbut it is rich in gold, inhabited by wild boars and by people who eat locusts. The missionary Rebmann first of modern explorers beheld the superb mountain with its glittering snowy crest in the year 1848. But some erudite geographers, such as Desborough Cooley, having already mapiHjd out an inland Africa from their inner consciousness, immediately questioned this discovery, and suggested that Rebmann must have been the victim of some mirage or other hallucination. Nevertheless Rebmann 's report was confirmed the next year by Krapf, another missionary, who after crossing the Bura range penetrated to the very foot of the great mountain. A farther advance was made in 1861 and 1862, when the explorers Von der Decken and Thornton scaled its southern slopes to a height of al)out 10,500 feet, although still far below the lower level of the perpetual snows. Since then Kilima-Njaro has been visited by New, Fischer, Thomson, and especially Johnston and Meyer. Johnston spent six months on its southern slopes studying its natural history, and exploring its upper parts to within a short distance of its crest ; while Meyer, after five days of ascent, succeeded in 1887 in reaching the highfst summit, close to the rim of the crater itself ; but he found it impossible to scale an icy pinnacle which rose about 150 feet still higher. The mountain cannot fail henceforth to become one of the chief centres of attraction for African travellers, for it has now been included within the limits of the German possessions. Hence it will no doubt soon be connected with Mombaz and the other ports on the east coast, if not by easy highway's of communication, at least by well-beaten tracts and stations where travellers may renew their supplies. This huge volcanic mass is no less than 60 miles long from cast to west, and about 50 in the transverse direction, with a total periphery of at least 160 miles. It is thus twice the size of Etna, whose lower slopes are sti 1 vast enough to support a population of over three hundred and twenty thousand inhabitants. Kilima-Njaro consists in reality of two distinct volcanoes connected together by an elevated saddle-back. The central dome and culminating point, falling very little if at all short of 19,000 feet, takes the name of Kibo, while Kimawenzi, the lesser cone, attains an altitude of 16,250 feet. But when seen from the east foot, the loftier summit is completely masked by the sharp peak of Kimawenzi. On the north, west, and east sides the entire mass slopes regularly up to the higher escarpments. But on the south side numerous igneous cones have been ojxsned near the base of the twin peaks, and the eruptive rocks that have been discharged from these cones have graduf Uy developed a broad terrace with a mean elevation 846 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. of from 4,000 to 0,000 feet, whieli has been carved into parallel sections by the running waters, and which p:radually merges in the surrounding plains. This vast sustaining platform, which projects some J 2 miles bayond the normal slope of the volcano, constitutes the Chaga country, the only fertile and inhabited pnrt of the whole clump of mountains. The snow rests throughout the year on both crests of Kilima-Njaro, either i.i a uniform mass, or in streaks and patches. From season to season, almost from day to day, and even during the dry period, the aspect of the upper slopes under- goes continual change, due to the alternate expansion and decrease of the snow- fields. Till recently the coast people supposed that this snowy mantle, glittering in the tropical sun, was a solid mass of silver, and expeditions were frequently organised to scale the escarpments of the mountain in search of the precious metal, which when reached molted into water at the touch of their profane hands. The snows usually descend lowest in the month of October, especially on the western slopes, where they stand at the level of about 14,000 feet above the sea ; in July and August they recede nearest to the summit of both cones. The ascent of the mountain, at all times extremely difficult, is most easily performed during the snowy months, because at that time there is less fog, and, strange as it may seem, the cold is then less intense. The summits are seldom altogether free from clouds or mist. But when the snow-capped dome is seen glittering in the sun high above the lower fogs, it appears all the more magnificent that it seems entirely severed from the earth by the intervening oceans of vapours. Then it is indeed the Ngaje Ngai, or " House of God," as the Masai call it. They also give it the more simple title of Dunye Ebor, or " "White Mountain." The Njiui Plain. The opposite slopes of Kilima-Njaro present a most remarkable contrast in their gentral appearance. All the streams which take their rise amid the snows of the higher regions flow exclusively down the southern flanks of the mountain. A few torrents have no doubt thoir sources on the east and west sides, but these sources are all situated about the base, so that here the upper slopes are destitute of running waters, while the northern flanks are everywhere perfectly dry on the surface. It is watered by no streams. Hence the Njiri plain, which on this side stretches along the foot of the mountain, is a complete desert, although a few springs are seen bubbling up here and there. These springs, which flow to the surrounding lagoons and saline reservoirs, are evidently themselves fed by under- ground streams concealed amid the ashes and scoria; of the volcano. The Njiri reservoirs are not the only closed basins occurring round about the periphery of Kiliraa-Njaro. One of these basins lying at its south-east foot, and known as Lake Chala, is a flooded igneous crater, whose almost vertical walls of fcorioD are encircled on the summit by a garland of verdure. Its waters are sweet and transparent. The Masai have a tradition that the lake was formed during a violent eruption, during which one of their villages disappeared ; and, as in so many other volcanic regions, they fancy they still occasionally hear the bellowing

Fig. 109. — Kibo western peak of Kilima-Njaro.

of the cattle, the bleating of the sheep, and the shouts of the herdsmen rising like 848 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. a distant echo from the depths of the abyss. This illusion is, with great probabiUty, attributeil by Wray to the confused noise of the flocks of aquatic birds rever- berating from side to side of the walls of the basin. MOERU AND UlU MOUNTAINS. West and north-west of the central mass the sustaining platform bears several other eminences of igneous origin, and some of these also attain considerable elevations. Conspicuous amongst these is Mount Moeru, which is separated from Kilima-Njaro by the level Sigirari plain, whose mean altitude is fully 4,000 feet above the se:i. Moeru may almost be regarded as a rival of Kilima-Njaro itself, for its terminal cone is considerub'y over 16,000 feet high, and even in the month of July slight streaks of snow are occasionally observed on its summit in the early dawn, which, however, are s>on dissipated by the rays of the rising sun. At most other times, when the volcanic peak shakes off the mantle of fleecy clouds in which it is usually wrapped, it is seen standing out dark against the azure sky. It thus presents a striking contrast to the white-crested Kibo and Kimawenzi, and has accordingly received from the Masai people the distinctive title of Dunye Erok la Sigirari, that is, the "Black Mountain," of Sigirari. But it is not the only Dunye Erok in this region, for several otlicr " Black Mountains " raise their isolated pyramidal cones abave the plateau to the north-west of Kilitna-Njaro, one of them attaining an altitude of no less than 13,000 feet. The eminences rising above the rugged uplands stretching north of Kilima- Njaro present in many places the aspect of veritable mountain ranges. The Kiulu and Ulu mountains, both of which send affluents to the Sabaki, constitute a long chain disposed first in the direction from sou'h-east to north-west, and then trending due north parallel with the escarpments which skirt the east and west sides of the crevassed waterpartiug. The northern extremity of the Ulu range points precisely in the direction of Mount Kenia, which ranks next to Kilima- Njaro as the loftiest mountain in the whole continent. Owing to the gentle slope of its flanks, Kenia covers an extensive superficial area. Its lava-streams have been discharged on an incline of not more than ten or twelve degrees down to the base of the mountain, which rests on a platform with a mean altitude of about 5,500 feet above the sea. Mount Kenia. Frcm the centre of this blackish platform rises the highest peak, a regular pyramid considerably over 3,000 feet high, and so steep in several places that the snow is unable to lodge on the rocky ground. The cone is rather of a greyish than a white colour, whence its Masai name, Dung^ Egere, or " Grey Mountain," although, according to Von der Decken, it is also known as the "White Mountain." Kenia lies nearly 200 miles farther north than Kilima-Njaro, the line of the equator crossing its slopes north of the central peak. Nevertheless the cKmatic MOUNT ELGON. 849 I conditions are much the same as those of its southern rival. Like it, the Grey Mountain is also frequently wrapped in fogs, being usually shrouded in mists during the greater part of the day, unrobing itself only in the evening at the hour of the setting sun, or else at dawn when struck by the first solar rays. The existence of Eenia was unknown in Europe before the year 1849, when it was first mentioned by the missionary, Krapf ; but no traveller has yet succeeded in climbing the slopes of this volcano. Even Thomson, who approached nearest to it, surveyed only its eastern face, and that at some distance. I^ike Kilima- Njaro, Kenia discharges much more water by its southern valleys than on the other slopes of its vast periphery. Mount Elgon and its Caves. West of Kenia other mountain masses, ranges, or isolated eminences, follow in continuous succession as far as the shores of Victoria Nyanza and the banks of the Nile. A chain of lofty mountains, to which Thomson has given the name of Aberdare, runs south-east and north-west in the same direction as the general axis of all the uplands in Masailand. Lake Baringo is also dominated by some elevated heights, which rise above both sides of the great volcanic fissure. Lastly, to the north-east of Victoria Nyanza appears the superb cone of Mount Elgon or Ligonyi, which has an altitude of no less than 14,000 feet, and which, like most of the isolated mountains of this region, is an extinct volcano. In the tuffa sides of this mountain deep caves or pits have been excavated, or at least enlarged, by the hand of man. One of these pits, examined by Thomson, was found to be 30 feet deep, 100 feet long, and about 20 broad, cut perpendicularly out of a volcanic agglomerate of great compactness. " In the centre of this pit, or (as it may have been) mouth of a cave, stood several cows, and a number of the usual beehive arrangements for storing grain. On the side opposite me were the ojjenings of several huts, which were built in chambers out of sight, and which only showed the doorways, like the entrances to a dovecot. In and out of these were children running in a fashion thoroughly suggestive of the lower animals, especially as seen in the midst of their strange surroundings. On inquiring as to who made this curious excavation, I was told that it was God's work. ' IIow,' said they, 'could we with our puny implements ' (exhibiting a toy -like axe, their only non- warlike instrument), 'cut out a hole like this? And this is nothing in com- parison with others which you may see all round the mountain, 8ee there, and there, and there ! These are of such great size that they penetrate far into utter darkness, and even we have not seen the end of them. In some there are large villages with entire herds of cattle. And yet you ai-k who made them! They are God's work.' " There was absolutely no tradition regarding these caves among the people. 'Our fathers lived here, and their fathers did the same,' was the invariable reply to all my questions. Clearly there was no clue in that direction. And yet the caves bore incontestable evidence on the face of them that they had neither 350 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. a natural nor supernatural origin. They must have been excavated by the hand of man. That such prodigious excavations in extremely solid rock, extending away into complete darkness, branching out in various directions, and from 12 to lo feet from floor to coiling, were fonncd as dwelling-places, or even as strong- holds, is simply absurd. For natives such as those of the present day to have cut out even one cave would have been a sheer impossibility, with the tools they possess. IJut there are not merely one or two excavations. There are surprising numbers of them — sufficient indeed to house a whole tribe, as I am informed that they extend all round the mountain. " There is one point of great interest as tending to throw some light on the sub- ject. The caves all occupy a certain horizon or level of the mountain, and all occur in the compact agglomerate, none in the level beds immediately overhead.

• ' Looking at evervthinff, I can come to but one conclusion, and that is, that in

a very remote era some ver}' powerful race, considerably advanced in arts and civilisation, excavated these great caves in their search for precious stones, or possibly some ])recious metal. However improbable this theory may seem, it is the only one that suggests itself to me after months of cogitation. Unfortunately, though I was from the first without a doubt about their being of artificial origin, this idea never crossed my brain while I was at Elgon, and I consequently made no special examination for evidence of precious stones or metals. Are we to suppose that the Egyptians really got so far south ? If not what other race could have cut these extraordinary recesses P " * The Paxoani and Tana Rivers. The Pangani River, whose lower course forms the boundary between the British and German protectorates, receives its first supplies from Mounts Moeru and Kilima-Njaro. Of all these mountain torrents the easternmost is the Lumi, which rises at the foot of Kimawenzi, and flows at first southward to the elonsrated ba>^in of Lake Jipe at the foot of the Ugono eo^arpments. This basin stands at an elevation of no more than 2,400 feet, nevertheless the plain stretching south of the Kilima-Xjaro terraces lies at a still lower level, for an emissary flowing from the lake immediately to the west of the Lumi influent trends north-westwards in the direction of the foot of the mountain itself. After its confluence with the Ruvu (Ru-Yu'i, and several other torrents, this emissary from the lake is already a river of considerable volume. Fischer found that it was nearly 350 feet broad, with a depth of over 3 feet. Farther down the stream, which here receives scarcely any tributaries, flows southwards and then to the south-east, forcing its way over a series of fulls and rapids through the rocky barriers which run trans- versely to its course. It continues to he obstructed by other falls down to the lower reaches, so that the Pangani becomes navigable only within some 24 miles of the coast, where its channel is confined by two elevated terraces of coralline formation.

• Through Maaailand, p. 510. « THE TANA EIVER. 851

Two other largo rivers of this region have their gourccs in the upland valloys of mountains in the western parts of the plateau. The Sabaki, or "Forest River," receives one of its affluents, the Tsavo, from the slopes of Kilima-Njaro, whereaa its chief headstreams take their rise in the Kiidu and Ulu ranges, and farther north in the chain skirting the plateau near Lake Naivasha. The Tana (Dana), the whole of whose middle course is still unexplored, has also its origin in the same border range, whence it bere takes the name of Kilama-nsi, or " River of the Mountain." Rut the Tana dcjes not become a considerable stream till it penetrates south of Mount Kenia, from the southern flanks of which it receives the contributions of numerous torrents. North of this region flow some other copious rivers, one of which, the Ururu, that is to say, " Thunder," has been so named from a tremendous cascade visited by Thomson, and by him described as plunging down several hundred feet without a break into a fearful gloomy gorge. The Ururu and the other streams which flow to the north-west and north of Mount Kenia, converge in a single channel to form the Gwaso n'Erok, or *' Black River," but east of Kenia the farther course of this river is still unexplored, and it is uncertain whether it continues to flow eastwards in the direction of the Juba, or bends round to the south-east to form a junction with the Tana. At Massa, the highest point of the valley where it was observed by the brothers Denhardt, the Tana is a stream averaging about IGO feet in breadth, with a rapid current exceeding three and a half miles an hour. Its depth varies from 12 to over 30 feet, and it is obstructed only by a small number of sandbanks covered by at least 3 feet of water. Like most other rivers in this part of the continent, the Tana receives no affluents along its lower course. On the contrary, it here overflows its banks to the right and left during its two annual floods, forming temporary morasses and lagoons, which spread out beyond the horizon on the low-lying plains. The riverain populations have raised along the river low embankments scarcely more than three fept high, which are pierced at intervals by irrigating rills ramifying amid the surrounding ricefields. When the waters subside in the mainstream, the overflow retires from the lagoons through these channels back to the Tana. Some of these channels, gradually deepened by the current, become navigable streams, com- municating from opening to opening along the meandcrings of the Tana, which itself occasionally shifts its bed and flows bodily into one or other of the lateral streams. As it approaches the coast the Tana bifurcates, the Mto Tana, or chief branch flowing southwards to Ungana Ray, the Bahia Formosa of the Portuguese, while the other, merely a shallow passage, merges eastwards in the estuary of the Ozi, that is, the " Black River " of the Gallas. The Belezoni, or Belondsoni, as this eastern branch is called, would soon be obstructed by the reeds, were it not kept open by the riverain people, who are able to navigate it with their light craft. In some places it is scarcely more than three feet from bank to bank, and is crossed at a bound by the natives. Nevertheless the Belezoni might easily be transformed to a broad navigable channel, by simply dredging and cutting through the soft alluvial soil of the surrounding plain. 852 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. By taking advantage of the general lie of the land, the Tana itself might in the Nime wav bo connected with the lower course of two other rivers, the Kifili and the Sabaki, which reach the coast more to the south. The natives are unanimous in asaertin*' that during the periodical inundations, its current traverses the inter- vening lake and overflows into the southern alluvial tracts, flooding the depressions to a sufficient depth to allow light craft to pass from one fluvial basin to the other, keeping to the inner or land side of the dunes which here fringe the coast. This transverst' navigable waterway is even continued southwards beyond the Sabaki by lacustrine cavities which are regularly flooded during the rainy season. According to Thomson, there would appear to be distinct evidence of upheaval all along this coast. The coral terrace formations have been raised in some places from 50 to over GO feet, and farther inland from 120 to about 200 feet above the present stni-level. But indications of an opposite phenomenon are said to have been observed in the neighbouring Tangata inlet. Whether through subsidence of the ground, or the erosive action of the marine waters, several villages with their palm-groves have here entirely disappeared. Flora. Apart from the mountainous district, the whole region stretching from the Indian Ocean to the upper Paugani, Sabaki, and Tana fluvial basins may be com- pared in its general aspect to a uniform carpeted floor over which the running waters have traced a number of variegated designs. This level floor takes the name of Nyika, that is to say, "Savage Land," or "Wilderness," lacking suflficient moisture to support a vigorous tropical vegetation. Here the arid soil produces little beyond short herbaceous growths, thorny scrub, and here and there a few stunted trees. Nyika is iu fact a true veld, and would certainly have been so named by the Dutch settlers in South Africa. Its Wanyika inhabitants suppose that the rains are the property of the Swaheli people, because they possess the Koran, that is, the great book of divine magic ; and Krapf tells us that envoys from the inland tribes are frequently sent to the governor of Mombaz to beg the favour of a few much-needed showers. But for a space of at least 12 miles in breadth along the seaboard, the coastlands, being fertilised by the marine vapours, ure clothel with a rich mantle of tropical vegetation. Towards the interior also the monotonous Xyika plains are interrupted by the highlands which intercept the moisture-bearing clouds, whrle the running waters descending from these uplands support a growth of riverain forests winding in narrow" green belts across the country. The cocoanut-palm, which usually occurs elsewhere only along the seaboard tracts, here penetrates through the river valleys into the interior as far as the sIojHis of the Ndara hills, a distance of some 70 miles from the coast. The vegetation which encircles the base of Kiliraa-Njaro to a height of about 3,000 feet, seems all the more beautiful and diversified for the striking contrast presented by it to the arid and almost waterless wilderness of the Nyika country. Nevertheleis the forest growths of these lower buttresses have scarcely atropical FAUNA OF MASAI LAND. 868 aspect, but recall rather the general physiognomy of the woodlands in West Euroi)e. The valleys between Ji,000 and 6,000 feet are extensively overgrown with the musa ensete, or wild banana of Abyssinia. The lovely tree-ferns, which are intermingled with the vegetation of the lower slopes, continue to ascend as high as the line of 8,000 feet. A few hundred yards higher up they are mostly repluce<l by giunt heaths of the common erica genus, growing to the size of tallish trees ; and here ulso the stems and brunches of the trees are densely hung with mosses, orchilla-lichen, or delicate epiphytic ferns. An extraordinary conipo.«ite plant, named from its discoverer seiiecio Johnstoni, flourishes in the marshy ground, and some.imes grows to a height of 20 feet. From a distance it looks somewhat like a banana, with huge broad leaves at the summit of a slim black trunk, but with yellow flowers like a groundsel, to which it is allied. Some of these curious plants are met as far up as 14,000 feet, in regions where the snow lodges in some seasons. Farther up the flowering vegeta- tiiin is represented only by i-oma low plants, such as dwarf heathers, beyond which nothing is seen except red or green lichens, yellowish sands, rocks, and snowtields. The species of these higher regions are connected on the one hand with those of Abyssinia, and on the other with the Drakenberg Alpine flora. Johnston also describes some varieties which show a certain affinity to the characteristic forms of tropical Af lica, and which appear to have been slowly modified in order gradually to adapt themselves to the new conditions of life in the higher altitudes. But two distinct genera seem to be altogether peculiar to Kilima-Njaro, or at least have hitherto been met nowhere else. On the other hand the superb calodendroiis of the Cape regions, which till recently were supposed to extend no farther north than Natal, are now known to be common on the slopes both of Kilima-Njaro and Kcnia. FAtNA. Some specie*? of birds frequenting the Kilima-Njaro woodlands are new to science, and on the surrounding plains a variety of the ostrich (xfrnf/ziits dinaoides) has been discovered which differs from the common species. Although quad- rupeds of the mammal order differ in no respects from those of the surrounding regions, the explorer is surprised to meet certain species at such great altitudes on the flanks of the mountain. Thus the elephant roams over its valleys and rocks up to an altitude of over 13,000 feet ; the lion and the leopard do not range so high, but are still met as far as 8,000 feet. Monkeys, and especially baboons, are very uumt reus. They keep for the most part in the neighbourhood of the plan- tations, where they live on terms of friendship, or at least of mutual forbearance, with the natives. The colobus, however, with his magnificent black and white fur coat, which is much prized as an ornament by the Masai warriors, alwa3-s carefully shuns the vicinity of human habitations. Sportsmen also occasionally meet a member of the canine family which differs from the jackal, but like him is of nocturnal habits. 120— At 864 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. The hippopotamus, which was formerly very common in the rivers, has now withdrawn to the riverain lagoons of the interior. On the plains encircling Mount Kenia, Thomson observed herds of captured camels among some Galla tribes. JJut the Masai people make no use of this animal either for riding or transport puri>osf8, reserving it exclusively for the shambles. The tsetse fly, so fatal to cattle and other domestic animals, infests some of those districts, whilst others are visited by the donderobo, another species of fly, whose sting is deadly to the ass. A large section of tbe seaboard, however, is free from the mosquito scourge. Inhabitants. Throughout the whole of these regions the populations are distributed in much the same way as the vegetable species. Thus the Masai warriors and pastors, like their Galla kinsmen, chiefly roam the herbaceous, scrubby, or arid plains ; while the forest tracts are occupied by the agricultural Bantft tribes, akin to those of Austral Africa. These agricultural tribes, although very numerous, have been frequently obliged to displace themselves in order to avoid the incursions of their predatory neighbours. Extensive districts have thus been completely depopulated, the peaceful cultivation of the land being rendered absolutely impossible by the lawless habits of the Masai nomads. The liantus, who occupy the southern part of the territory in the vicinity of the Pangani river, are known to the surrounding peoples by various names. Thus the AVaswaheli call them AVashcnzi (Wa-Shenzi), that is to say, " Conquered," whereas to the Wasatnbaras of the western uplands they are simply Wabondei (Wa-lJondei), or " Lowlanders." All, however, are greatly intermingled with other reductxl populations, and merge by imperceptible transitions into the Mohainnicdan inhabitants of the coast, who are themselves made up of the most v.iried elements. The AVasamharas. The Wasambaras (Wa-Sambara), who occupy the southern highlands, are dis- tinguished from all their neighbours by several peculiar social customs. The marriage ceremonies especially are very curious. The bride and bridegroom are placed in the same cabin with a great fire between them, and then left for five days without food, beyond a little lukewarm water when they feel faint. On the fifth day they take a little nourishment, in order to acquire sufficient strength to join in the wedding procession, which takes the road to the mother-in-law's dwelling, trnd which is headed by the bridesmaid, dressed as a man, and armed with sword and gun. But these primitive usages are gradually disappearing since regular commercial rehitions have been established between the Wasambaras and the Swaheli. The Ki-Swaheli language is even becoming the general medium of intercourse amongst THE WASAMBARA8. 856 all these inland tribes. The English missionaries established at Magila, in the eastern Usambara highlands, have acquired a fluent knowledge of this idiom, which they make use of for instructing the Wa^ambara natives. But Moham- medanism has penetrated farther into the upland villages, probably because a mere outward sign suffices to effect a conversion to the faith of Islam. Just as a Moslem captive becomes a pagan by being compelled to eat pork, the pagan is transformed to a Mussulman by the simple process of having his head shaved. So early as the year 1848, at the time of the missionary Krapf, two of the king's sons had been converted to Islam, and had at the same time learnt to read and write, Mohammedanism and civilisation being considered in this region as synonymous terms. The king, who bore the title of the " Solitary Lion," had his harem, in imitation of the sultans on the coast. His wives, of whom there were several hundred, went veiled like all Moslem women, and no stranger was allowed access to their village, which stood on the brow of a hill, surrounded by c/iambas, or gardens cultivated by slaves attached to their several households. Many of the local usages are evidently due to Arab influence. Thus four holy villages have been set apart as places of refuge, and here reside all the native magicians. No strangers are permitted to enter these places, where the Wasambara or Washenzi murderers and other criminals find a safe retreat. Those who are fortunate enough to touch the king's garment are also henceforth regarded as privileged persons. In the same way slaves acquire their freedom by crossing the threshold of a royal dwelling, but in this case the original seller is obliged to refund to the last purchaser the price paid for the freed man. The king of Usambara is a powerful sovereign, who in the time of Krapf ruled over about half a million Wasambaras, Washenzi, and other tribes. His territory, which lies between the coast, the valley of the Pangani, and the Pare Mountains, is one of the most fertile regions in Africa. Till recently it also comprised a great part of the Zeguha country on the south side of the river, and beyond the Pare uplands, but the Wasambara tribes that had penetrated into these districts have been gradually driven back, and the conterminous peoples have succeeded in estab- lishing their independence. Some runaway Negro slaves have also founded petty republican states in the easily defended forest tracts which encircle the Usambara highlands. All the agricultural and pastoral inhabitants of the Usambara state are required to pay the king an annual tax amounting to one-tenth of their crops and live- stock, and this tax suffices to support a considerable export trade in the local produce, which is forwarded through the neighbouring seaports to Zanzibar, and even as. far as Arabia. All the women of the country are regarded as the personal property of the sovereign, who may choose whom he will without paying the usual dowry. "He is master, he is God !" All are his slaves and proclaim them- selves as such. 856 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. TiiK Waruvus and Watavetas. Between the Wasambaras and Wuzeguhas, the islands in the Pangani are inhabited by the Waruvus (Wa-Ruvu), that is to say, "River People," who con- stitute a distinct tribe differing in speech and customs from their neighbours. These Wuruvus have established themselves in their insular strongholds in order to avoid the attacks of the Masai freebooters, who roam over the extensive plains stretchinj^ 8)uth wards in the direction of Ugogo. Their island retreats are reaehefl by the shepherds, with their flocks of sheep and gouts, by means of rieketty plankings resting on stems of the dum-palni, while the animals cross over by swinmiing. The Waruvus are regarded by all the surrounding populations as powerful fetishmen, very skilful in chanuiTig the crocodiles that infest these waters. Hence the Mohannncdin caravan peopK^, not satisfied with invoking Allah against the rapacious saurians, also appeal to the Waruvu magicians, who throw a potent "medicine" into the stream and thereby make the reptiles harmless It is popu- larly believe 1 that no caravan entrusted to a Waruvu guide has ever met with any accident in crossing the river. Starics are even told of crocodiles which, after s'-izing some domestic animal, drojjped it again at the voice of the charmer. Above Mkaramo the fluvial islands are uninhabited, all the natives of this district having taken refuge in the moiintuins. The Wapare (Wa-Pare), pastors and peasants, stand in such fear of the Masai marauders that they do not even venture to drive their herds to the pasture- lands, but rear them altogether in the indosures. Vet notwithstanding all their precautions, the raiders often succeed in carrying them off. The Wagimos (Wa-Gono), who inhabit the uplands which skirt the west side of Lake Jipe, are less exposed than the peoples of the plains to the attacks of the ^lasai hordes. South-eist of Kilima-Njaro, the little Wataveta (Wa-Taveta) community occupies the narrow zone of woodlands stretching along the banks of the Lu-Mi Itiver as fur as Lake Jipe. Here it has succeeded in maintaining its independence l)rotected by the large forest growths of the district. The chief town is further defcndefl by stout palisades behind which the natives are able to defy the Masai, usually armed only with short swords. The Watavetas are related to their northern and eastern neighbours, the Wachagas and Wateitas (Wa-Chaga, Wa-Teita), and speak a dialect of the same language. But they are now a very mixed people, owing to intermingling wi'h Wukwafi families which have sought a refuge in ihe.r midst. Of these Wakwafi strangers, those who have best preserved the original typ- ore distinguished by more regular features, more prominent cheek- bones, and a more animated expression than the true Watavetas. Several have also preserved their national dress ; but with the exception of circumcision, which IS still practised according to the Masai rite, they have adopted all the usages of their Wataveta hosts. They have settled down as peaceful agriculturists, no longer prowling about the villages to carry off the women and children, and no longer making a trade of war, as their Masai kinsmtn still do. • THE WACHAOAS. 867 In gonoral the inhubitunts of Tavota are di8tin«,'ui>hc>J by their genial, cheerful dis]>osition, and the friendly reception they give to all peaceful strangers. Hence their town is the chief resting-place and revictualling station for caravans journey- ing backwards and forwards between the coast and Masai Land. In the neighbour- hood the Swaheli traders have founded a settlement, where they maintain temporary establishments. Thanks to these visitors from the coast, the Watavetas have acquired a considerable degree of instruction, and nearly all speak Ki-Swaholi as well as their own Hantu dialect. But they have not yet taken to the Arab custom of wearing clothes. Most of them still go naked, unless, for love of finery or as a protection against cold, they now and then throw some flowing drapery or animal's skin across the shoulders. The state is administrated by a council of five irazi, or elders, usually chosen from amongst the families of the original Taveta stock. But the decrees of this council are controlled and often modi tied by public opinion, which enjoys much force in the Taveta republic, and which is itself largely regulated by established usage or tradition. The marriage laws are somewhat lax, while those regulating betrothals are remarkably severe. Once engaged, or only partly purchased, the young woman can no longer go gadding about after dark ; nor can she converse with any of the opposite sex, not even her future husband, until the stipulated price in cows or oxen is fully paid up. Before the birth of her first child she displays herself before the dwellings of her female friends, preceded by a matron, and decked in all her finery : iron-wire, veil, pearls, chains, rings, and bracelets. The traditional funeral rites are also still scrupulously observed. The body is in the first instance buried in a squatting attitude, one arm resting on the knee and the head supported by one of the hands. Then, when nothing remains except the bare bones, the skull is removed — that is, if it belonged to the head of a family or to his principal wife — and transferred to the shelter of a wide-branching dracoeua, which it is henceforth charged to protect against the evil spirits. The Wachagas and Wanyikas. The Wachagas, who are divided into several petty monarchical states, inhabit the volcanic terraces of the Chaga country stretching along the southern slope of Kilima-Njaro. They speak a distinct Bantu dialect, which shows marked affinities with that of the Wasambara nation. Muchame, their most important state, is not strong enough to protect itself against the attack of the Masai raiders who infest its southern and western borders. Hence large tracts of extremely fertile land, which might support many hundred thousand inhabitants, have been entirely abandoned to nature. But however murderous the constant warfare carried on between the Masai and the Wachagas, the women of both nations are always mutually respected ; they enjoy such absolute immunity that they pass freely backwards and forwards between the hostile tribes, as if perfect |x'ace prevailed amongst them. The complete isolation of the farmsteads still attests the former peaceful habits of these people, so different from their present unsettled relations, 868 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. Each family lives quite apart, occupying a group of cabins amid a thicket of bananas enclosed by tall hedges or stockades. Hence not much importance can be attached to the hypothesis of M. Duveyrier, who suggests that the Wachagas of the Kilima-Njaro heights may possibly be a remnant of the conquering Jaga warriors who overran the Congo empire in the sixteenth century. The two people seem to have nothing in common beyond a fanciful resemblance between their resjH^ctive national designations. Like the Wasambara monarch, the Wachaga chiefs enjoy absolute power over their subjects. All the men are their slaves ; all children born within their domain are destined to serve them, and as soon as they have acquired sufficient strength they are employed for the " works of the king," such as constructing defensive lines and irrigating canals, tilling the land, building cabins, and manufacturing arms. All matrimonial alTairs are settled by his majesty, who puts the wedding ring on the bride's finger, selects her future lord, and fixes the nuptial day. Unions are far less premature than amongst most African peoples, and to this circumstance may probably to a great extent be attributed the fact that the Chaga race is one of the finest in all Africa. The salubrious climate, their regular agricultural habits and frugal fare, combined with the excellent quality of the fruits and vegetables, also tend to give to the Wachagas a decided superiority in health and physical strength over all their neighbours. They live chiefly on a milk diet, and place pitchers of milk on the graves of the dead, whereas the people of the plains make offerings of rice and palm wine to the departed. The Wachagas, who are skilled agriculturists, raise abundant crops of wheat, excellent pulse, various vegetables, and bananas of unique quality, rivalled in flavour only by those of the Seychelle Islands. On the other hand, they have developed scarcely any industries, being ignorant even of the weaver's art. But as blacksmiths they are unsurpassed, if even equalled, by any people in East Africa, manufacturing lances, darts, axes, variously ornamented shields of great artistic merit. They also carry on a brisk trade with the seaboard populations, from whom they procure clothes and sundry European wares. One of the pro- minent items of the import trade is the so-called emballa, a kind of alkaline earth from the southern plains, which they dissolve in water, using the solution as a substitute for salt in their diet. Thanks to the absence of the tsetse fly throughout the whole of the Pangani valley, except on the banks of the Taveta, caravans are able to employ asses as pack-animals in the transport service between the coast and Chagaland. This is a point of such vital importance that it would necessarily secure the preference for the Pangani route above all the southern highways, but for the fact that it is still exposed to the frequent attacks of the Masai freebooters. According to the still surviving local traditions, the Portuguese formerly visited the interior by following the Pangani fluvial valley. Towards the beginning of the eighteenth century some Mohammedan pioneers also settled in the country, where they even founded a royal dynasty ; but all traces of their social and religious influences have since been completely effaced. • North of the Pangani valley the Bantu race is represented chiefly by the Wanyikas (Wa-Nyika), or "People of the Plains," who form a group of about a dozen distinct tribes. They number altogether perhaps about fifty thousand, and occupy the whole region which slopes from the Mombaz coast gently upwards to a height of some 2,000 feet in the interior. The Ki-Nyiks language differs little in

Fig. 110. — Tribes north of the Pangani.

its structure from the Ki-Swaheli, but, unlike it, is entirely free from Arabic elements. By far the largest Nyika tribe are the agricultural Wadigos (Wa-Digo) who inhabit the coastlands stretching south of Mombaz, and who alone number about thirty thousand souls. Another important branch of the family are the Wadurumas (Wa-Duruma), of whom some knowledge has been see through the English missionaries stationed in their neighbourhood. 360 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. Amongst the Wanyikns the division of time into four days still prevails, as in certain West African regions. They worship the sun, and their priests possess the mwanza, a mysterious instrument which is sometimes heard booming through the forents, hut which, according to popular* belief , no profane eye can behold with- out bein<>- struck dead on the spot. AVhen they reach the period of manhood the voung men have to cut great gashes across their breists in order to "renew their bhxKl," and also to give proof of unflinching courage. Another test is reserved for the sons of dnefs. who are required to live apart in the forests until they have " killed their num." After this act of prowess they are allowed to return to the paternal roof, and are declared worthy of succeeding to the chief power in the tril)e. Some Wakamhas fiom the north-west, and Swahelis from the coastlands, as well as various other immigrants, also dwell amid the Wanyika communities. In their territory numerous colonies have also been established by the Mohammedans, whose sheikhs are gradually becoming formidable rivals to the indigenous tribal chiefs. liesides these stningers the European missionaries have for some years been ensriiired in evanijelisin the Wauvika nation. One of their most flourishing: stations is that of liafxii, which was founded about the middle of the present century by Krapf and IJebmunu on an eminence in the neighbourhood of Morabaz. From the crest of this hill, about 1,000 feet high, the view sweeps over a vast horizon of plains, reefs, islands, and surf-beaten headlands. The Teita Mountains, which are crossed by the route leading from Mombaz to Kilima-Njaro, are also occupied by tribes of Bantu stock, speaking a dialect closely related to Ki-Swahcli, and according to Rebmann collectively numbering about a hundred and fifty thousand souls. These Wateitas (Wa-Teita) are constituted in republican communities, which sheltered behind their rocky fastnesses, have often repulsed the attacks of the savage Masai marauders. Amongst them the primitive custom of carrying off the bride by violence still survives in the form of a pretended abduction. The husband and his friends remove her by a show of force to his newly erected hut, where both arc left shut up for three days without any food whatever. But the make believe capture is always preceded by a present of cattle to her pirents, and the number of animals usually demanded on these occasions is so great, that rich persons alone are able to afford the luxury of a regular marriage. Owing to the general poverty, many less formal alliances are conseijuently contracted, often within close degrees of kinship. The Teita women enjoy a large share of personal freedom. Whenever she feels herself in any way aggrieved, the wife may leave her husband without let or hindrance on his part. The Wateitas bury their dead in the first instance, but after several months of interment the body is dug up and the head detached and placed apart in a sacred grove, where it is regularly consulted by the magicians. Although possessing numerous herds, the Wateitas eat only such animals as die of the cattle-plague. TUE WAPOKOMOS. 861 The Wapokomos and "Wakambas. To the same Buntti stock also belong the tribes dwelling in the districts north of Mombaz, such as the feeble Dukalo people enslaved by the Gullas, and the IJoni and Wasanieh (Wa-Sanioh) groups, who occupy the shores of Formosa Bay. Hut all of these tribes are being gradually merged with the powerful Galla nation, whose language they have already adopted. Owing pnjbably to this circumstance the traveller Douhardt regards the Waboni as Gallas rather than Bantus. Farther north the valley of the Pokomoni or Tana (Dana) river is occupied by the Wapokomo (Wa-Pokomo) nation, who constitute the northernmost group of Bantu peoples on the East African seaboard, where they have hitherto succeeded in preserving their distinct nationality. But along the lower course of the river they are exposed to so many enemies, Galla and Somali maurauders, and oppressive Swaheli tax-gatherers, that they have abandoned all hope of being long able to maintain an independent position. They are in fact already practically enslaved, although allowed to remain in their own homes, and not sent into captivity like so many other native populations. The branch of the l*okomo nation occupying the upper course of the river above the alluvial plains have preserved their political autonomy, and are still distinguished by the national virtues of honesty, candour, gentleness, and love of freedom. No other African people are animated by more friendly feelings towards strangers, or display an equal degree of kindness and consideration for their guests. In these respects the brothers Denhardt regard the Pokomos as a model com- munity. Although at present confined to the banks of the Tana, where they number from twenty-five to thirty thousand souls, they appear to have originally come from the north, and their line of migration seems to be indicated by several geographical names still surviving in the district lying between Kilima-Njaro and their present domain. According to Krapf, this domain is the cradle of the true Swaheli race, which was probably driven southwards by the Pokomo tribes advanc- ing from the north. Physically the Pokomos compare favourably with the surrounding populations, being tall and robust, with pleasant and even handsome features. But, like most of their neighbours, they endeavour to heighten their charms by tattooing the body. The women also daub themselves with ngo'i, a kind of red ochre brought from India, which they mix with butter or the fat of wild animals. Neither sex wears any covering to the head or feet, their v/hole costume being limited to a cotton loin- cloth. Circumcision is not universally practised, each clan following in this respect its own peculiar usages. At the birth of a child the husband must retire, and is not permitted to return to the conjugal home for fully five months after the event. During the whole of this period the wife is herself confined to the house, and allowed to go abroad only at night in company with her sisters or other relations. The children are brought up with the greatest care, and learn to make them- selves useful from their earliest years. Until their marriage the girls remain with their mother; but on reaching their twelfth year the boys are subjected to the 868 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. usmil rites preliminary to the state of manhood, after which all reside together in one large cabin. Burials are accompanied by a very strict ceremonial, which varies with the age and sox of the deceased, and every year a national feast is held in honour of the dead. This feast of " All Souls " is in fact the chief national solemnity, and provision is made for the lavish expenditure usuil on these occa- siiins by much j)rcviou8 thrift and economy. The Pokomos are essentially an agricultural people ; all take an equal share in field operations, and devote their attention especially to the cultivation of rice and maize. Some of the young men also occupy themselves with fishing and hunting, but the industrial arts are entirely neglected. They neither spin nor weave, nor practise metallurgy, but, apart from their huts and boats, import from the coast people all the manufactured wares of which they stand in need. Their com- munities are organised in petty republican states, enjoying complete self-govern- ment. Each group is separately administered by a mae, or elder, assisted by other •' patriarchs," who deliberate in council with him, and who are entrusted with the executive power. The Pokomos have a sort of traditional common law based on the principle of " eye for eye and tooth for tooth." North and north-west of Kilima-Njaro the most advanced, or northernmost, Bantu tribes are the AVakambas and Wakiluyus (Wa-Kamba, AVa-Kiluyu). The missionary Wakefield also mentions a tribe of the same stock, the Mbe or Dhaicho peoj)lo, who are said to inhabit the plains stretching to the north-east of Mount Kenia. The Wakambas, called also Warimangaos (Wa-Rimangao), who dwell to the south of this huge mounta.n mass, and whom Krapf estimated at about seventy thousand souls, are divided into as many republican communities as there are native villages in their territory. They are an enterprising people, who have been exposed to the constant attacks of the neighbouring Masai and Galla nations. But they have hitherto successfully resisted these attacks, thanks to the natural lines of defence presented by their rugged bush-grown territory. Nevertheless one of their tribes was compelled to emigrate in the year 1882, when men, women, and children, leaving the dangerous neighbourhood of the Masai nomads, suc- ceeded in reaching the Usagara country in the upper Wami basin over 300 miles farther south. The Wakambas are of a roving disposition, and being accustomed to long journeys, they are chiefly employed for keeping up the commercial relations throughout the vast region comprised between the Mombaz coast and Lake Victoria Nyanza. Most of the porters engaged by the Swaheli traders in the transport service across this region are members of the Wakamba nation. These natives have the curious habit of drinking cows' milk mixed with blood drawn from the necks of their bulls. Beyond the volcanic plateau, the watershed of the Victoria Nyanza is again occupied by tribes of Bantu speech. Here the Kavirondo people of the uplands, who differ greatly from those of the same name settled on the shores of the great lake, speak a Bantu dialect so closely related to Ki-Swaheli, that the coast popula- tions have no difficulty in understanding them. . THE WAKWAFI. 868 Besides the Bnntus, the hilly, wooded, and alluvial re«,'ion8 suitable for tillaj^e would also appear to bo inhabited by other peoples descended from the aboriginal races. Such are the Ala tribe, who dwell in the recesses of the forests between the Usambara and Pare highlands, and the Wasilikomos (Wa-Silikomo), that is, " Dwarfs," who are said to roam the districts lying west of Kilima-Njaro. But no European traveller has yet been able to visit them, and their very existence as a distinct race still remains somewhat doubtful. The "Wakwafi. The struggle for the ascendency is henceforth carried on exclusively between the Bantu populations, who are mainly tillers of the soil, and the Masai and Galla nations, who are members of the Ilamitic family occupied chiefly with pasturage and chronic warfare. The Wakwafi (Wa-Kwafi), although of the same origin as the Masai, may be regarded as forming a sort of transition between the Bantu and Hamitic ethnical groups, for several of their tribes have given up the nomad life, and become intermingled with the agricultural and settled populations. These Wakwafi are scattered over a territory of vast extent. Some, under the name of Humba, are settled in the vicinity of Mamboia, a missionary station in the Usambara country, others dwell over 400 miles farther north on the lower slopes of Mount Kenia. But the great majority of the nation is at present con- centrated in certain parts of the volcanic and lacustrine depression which separates the eastern and western plateaux, and on the western terrace lands sloping in the direction of Lake Victoria Nyanza. In the year 1830 the Wakwafi were also still the ruling people in the region which is bounded on the west by the Ugono and Par^ districts, on the east by Teita, and southwards by Usambara. But since that time this section of the nation has been exposed to an almost uninterrupted series of crushing calamities. Some of their pillaging or foraging parties were cut off to a man, their crops were devoured by swarms of locusts, their cattle perished of disease and hunger; then came the Masai hordes of the surrounding districts, who fell upon and miissacred the greater part of those that had escaped from the previous disasters. The few survivors were fain to seek a refuge amongst the Bantu populations of the neigh- bouring highlands, founding agricultural and trading settlements in the midst of the Taveta, Teita, Pare, Gono, Sambara, and Zeguha communities. This change from an unsettled, predatory existence to a peaceful mode of life has been attended by excellent moral results. The eastern branch of the Wakwafi nation, who were formerly so much dreaded, is at present regarded as one of the most industrious, honest, and hospitable people in East Central Africa. The Masai. The Masai properly so called, who claim for themselves and the kindred Wakwafi the distinctive appellation of Il-Oikob, that is, " Men," * believe, like so ♦ This term ia, however, also diversely explained to mean, " Brave," " Free," or " Masters of the Land," that is, autochthones, or men of the soil. 864 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. many othi r peoples, that they are the elect of mankind. According to the national legends, they are of divine origin, being sprung from a god who has his seat above the cloud capped summit of Mount Kenia. Like the Wukwafi, however, they have already bt^come diversely intermingled with the surrounding Bantu populations ; but the domain claimed or roamed over by them stretches somewhat more to the south than that of the Wakwafi branch. They occupy nearly the whole of the op?n country which stretches between the Upper Pangani and Upc»go, and arc also very numerous in the volcanic depression separating the two plateaux. The triangular Dogilani depression situated to the south of Lake Naivasha belongs entirely to the Masai people, who, however, have frequently shifted the limits of their territory, either by voluntary migrations, hostile encronclinients, defeats, famine, and other vicissitudes incidental to their loosely organised political system. They certainly number at present several hundred thousand souls, and must be estimated at over a million if in this ethnical group are to be included the Wahumbas bordering on Ugogo and the Wahuma.s scattered over Unyamezi and around the shores cf Victoria Nyanza. The Masai jdiysical type is one of the finest and noblest in the whole of Africa. According to Thomson, the men of pure Masai blood average six feet high, and have generally slim, wiry figures, admirable for running. Their features fre- quently resemble those of Europeans, being distinguished especially by broad foreheads and straight, slender nose ; but the upper incisors generally tend to project forwards, especially amongst the women, many of whom even 6nd it diffi- cult to make both lips meet. The cheek-bone is also very prominent, while the eyelids and the orbits have the oblique disposition characteristic of the Mongolic races. The skull, which is elongated and well developed, is covered by a mass of hair somewhat less crisp than that of the Negro and at times even quite lank. But this feature can be observed only amongst the young men, for all married men and all women without exception keep their heads carefully shaven. In the same way all the Masai people pierce and enlarge the lower lobe of the ear, insert- ing at first little rods, and afterwards distending it by means of heavy pendants made of iron or copper wire. Like some of the Nilotic and North Abyssinian tribes, the Masai pastors will frequently remain for hours standing on one foot with the other planted against the calf, and the body resting on their' lance or shield. So F. L. James tells us that the Base tribe " have a very peculiar way of resting, which is, I believe, common among many of the tribes of the White Nile. They place the sole of the right foot against the left knee, a mode of repose which to a European seems most uncomfortable and almost impossible." * Being essentially a pastoral people, the Masai lead a restless wandering life. Their usages are also in many respects intimately associated with the nomad existence of herdsmen. In various ways they show the greatest veneration for their cattle, even respecting the very herbage which serves as the daily food of their herds. Grass is in their eyes a sacred plant, which may not be thrown to the flames, nor yet cut down to be used for thatching their huts or strewing over • WUd Tribes of the Sudan, p. 90. * their beds. No negotiations are valid unless the contracting parties hold at the time a tuft of grass in their hands; no warlike expedition can hope for success unless a few wisps of herbage are first scattered along the route leading in the direction of the country they intend to march against. In order to escape from any pending misfortune the Masai smears his forehead and checks with cowdung; and when he feels the approach of death, he begs to be placed in the midst of his beloved cattle, so that he may pass away amid hallowed surroundings. He lives

Fig. 111. — Masai Warriors.

almost exclusively on an animal diet, drinking the milk of his cows, eating the flesh of his steers and oxen; but, strange to say, he considers it unlawful to take both milk and flesh on the same day. He can also be seldom induced to give or sell milk to strangers. The national diet is altogether 1egurded in a very serious light, and is regulated by severe ordinances, especially during the period when the young persons of both sexes are preparing for the rites admitting them to fellowship with the adult members of the community, and later when the young men are passing through the noviciate required to take part in the warlike expeditions. 866 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. ^ At that time the youths aro gorged with the flesh of oxen, and drink the hot blood spurting from the arteries of the wounded animals, in order thereby to lay in the greatest possible store of muscle and ferocity. Tobacco and all alcoholic drinks are at the same lime strictly forbidden, the national experience having shown that indulgence in these dissipations leads to a general deterioration of the physical and moral qualities. Masai society is divided into the two great classes of warriors and men of peace, respectively distinguished by the terms clmuran and elmorua. These terras, which bear some resemblance to that of Ihn-Orma, the collective national name of the Galla people, would seem to argue in favour of the common origin of the two races, a view which is also supported by other arguments. The young men who have the prospects of a rich inheritance in cattle are usually grouped ia the peace- ful elmorua division ; on the other hand, the more numerous class whose prospects are less brilliant, enroll themselves in the warlike division, in order to improve their position by taking part in plundering expeditions. These generally live apart, far from the camping-grounds of the married people, but accompanied by young girls whose duty it is to tend the herds, to provide the necessary supplies, and prepare the equipments of the young braves. Their incursions range over vast spaces, often suddenly surprising peaceful populations some hundred miles off. The marauders creep stealthily along amid the nearer tribes, which are usually on the alert, and generally return to their homes by different routes, accompanied by the herds which they have seized, and which meekly follow them, ua if charmed by some secret magic incantations. Acting always under the guidance of leaders in whom they place implicit confi- dence, the cattle-lifters observe the strictest discipline on the march, and display great skill in executing the various tactics of sudden surprise, retreat, feints, and suchlike movements of border warfare. They fight in silence, without the beat- ing of drums, or any battle-cries; the warrior who betrays any symptoms of cowardice is hacked to pieces by his companions. Whoever fails to bring back the spear and other equipments of his comrade in arms, with whom he has made brotherhood by drinking the same blood, meets with universal scorn, can make no more friends, and becomes little better than an outcast. Like all fighting people, such as the Kafirs, Matebeles, and Zulus, the Masai exhibit a great love of finery and personal ornamentation. They are fond of painting their bodies in red ; a flowing white cotton robe, edged or striped in some bright colour, falls from the shoulders, being attached to the neck like the poncho of the Mexicans. The oval contour of the face is also enclosed in a leather band or strap, which is embellished either with a zebra's mane or the tufted bristles of a wild boar, or better still with a bunch of black ostrich feathers, this remarkable object forming an elliptically shaped headdress which is disposed diagonally in a line beginning under the nether lip, and running in front of the ear to the crown. Beneath this singular head- gear, from which the face appears to protrude as from the empty frame of a looking-glass, the shoulders are enveloped in a short cape which seems to consist of one mass of kites* feathers. Other white plumes are also • THE MASAI. 867 disposed above the head, the hair of which is sometimes drawn out in long ringlets by means of bark fibre. The arms are protected by a horny ring and many coils of brass wire. To the calves are attached the flowing white fleece of the colobus in such a way as to resemble fluttering wings as he runs, and the gorgeous equip- ment finishes off with little tinkling bells attached to the heils. The weapons usually consist of a short sword passed through the girdle of a leathern tunic, a long broad-headed lance held in one hand, and in the other a great shield, painted all over with many-coloured heraldic devices. The women are fur less sumptuously arrayed. They usually wear little cloth- ing beyond a robe of dressed leather leaving exposed one arm and half of the breast. But they are on the other hand overladen with metal wire wound round the arms and legs, and disposed about the neck in the form of an inverted metal salver. Burdened as they are with such a weight of iron or copper ornaments, it is surprising to see the amount of bodily work they are able to get through, attending to the wants of their husbands and children, milking the cows, keeping the house- hold in order, and even doing a brisk trade with passing strangers. Less cruel and less eager for gain than the men, they have of I en saved the lives of their guests from the fury of their husbands or brothers. So inconvenient are the metallic adornments, that the wearer can neither .walk properly nor sit down or rise like other people, and can never run. When these ornaments are once on they become permanent fixtures, till finally taken off, as it would require many days of painful work again to adjust them in their proper places. They chafe the ankles especially, and evidently cause much pain. As they are also put on when very young, the calf is unable to develop to its natural size, and the consequence is that in the adult woman the legs remain at a uniform thickness, from ankle to knees — in fact, mere animated stilts (Thomson), The weight of this armour varies from four or five up to as many as thirty pounds, according to the wealth of the family ; and to the iron wire some even superadd great quantities of beads and iron chains, disposed in diverse ^nys round the neck.

• As a rule, the life of war and pillage is at an end as soon as the elmuran

thinks of settling down as a family man : that is, when he has acquired sufficient wealth to purchase a wife with the customary dowry of cattle. For a full month during the engagement the young man dons the dress of his betrothed, doubtless to signify that he has at last been subdued by the power of love, l^ke an African Hercules seated at the feet of a dusky Omphale. Custom also requires the newly married couple to live on a milk diet for the first month after the wedding. But later they acquire full freedom in this respect, and the ex-warrior, now become a man of peace, is no longer restricted even to the alternating regimen of milk and beef. He may now add to his ordinary fare cereals, fruits, and vegetables, as well as such luxuries as snuff, tobacco, which he has learnt to chew, and fermented drinks. He now also turns his attention to local politics ; he takes his place in the assemblies held to deliberate on matters of public interest, and votes at the election of the kigonnni, or deputy, by whom he is represented in the more important discussions. 868 SOUTH AXD EAST AFRICA. Although naturally proud and arrogant, the Masai has always a cordial wel- come for hiH friends. He even condescends to show a certain degree of courtesy to foreign traders, and will at times go the length of expectorating on them, to express his friendly feelings in the most approved fashion. Speaking of this remarkable ntitionul custom, Thomson assures us that it expresses "the greatest g<x)d-will and the best of wishes. It takes the place of the compliments of the season, and you hud better spit upon a damsel than kiss her. You spit when you meet, and you do the same on leaving. You seal your bargain in a similar manner. As I was a hjbon (wizard) of the first water, the Masai flocked to me as pious Catholics would do to springs of healing virtue, and with the aid of occa- sional drauo'hts of water I was equal to the demand. The more copiously I spat uiM)n them the greater was their delight, and with pride they would retail to their friends how the white medicine-man honoured them, and would point with the greatest satisfaction to the ocular proof of the agreeable fact." * The Masai displays little love of work, and practices no industry of any kind. The women attend to all his personal wants, while the various trades and profes- sions are carried on by some enslaved tribes, such as the Wandorobbos (Wa- Ndorobbo), who manufacture the warriors' weapons and the domestic utensils, and also hunt the buffalo and elephant. In their physical features, speech and costume, these artisans appear to belong to the Masai stock; but they have been much dibascd by slavery, and Krapf regards them as related rather to the aboriginal Ala tribes, who still survive in the upland vulleN's of Usambara. The Wando- robbos arc at present chiefly found vscattered in small village groups in the forest districts on the slops of Keni » and the Kikuyu highlands, where they live mainly on the produce of the chase. The Masai people have no regular form of religious wor-hip, although when taken by surprise or stricken by any sudden terror they frequently invoke a super- natural being whom I hey call Ngai, and whom they confound with the wind, the sun, the mountain snows, the peals of thunder, and lightning-flash. Amongst them there is a numerous class of laiboiis (lybpns), or magicians, who interpret the flight of birds and all the phenomena of animated nature, who call down blessings on the herds, ward off pestilence, and conjure the fury of the elements. The inhntian, a latent medicine-man regarded as the wisest of soothsayers, is tl.e wealthiest person in the whole of Masai Land. He is the owner of countless flocks, and like all other Masai sages, gives proof of his power and wisdom by his corpu- lence, liy an artificial system of diet he has grown so obese as to have almost lost the faculty of locomotion, and is consequently all the more venerated by his votaries. In some districts the Masai, like the AYanyikas, piy a sort of homage to " father hyiena," the animal that devours all bodies thrown to the bush. AYhen the carcass of one of these beasts crosses their path the Avhole tribe goes into mourning, for the hyicna is regarded as a kind of tutelar deity of the race, and a vague belief in metempsychosis finds expression in the idea that the souls of their

Op. eit., p. 291. •

Masai women of Njiri.

THE DALLAS. 869

forefathers pass into the bodies of those rapacious felines. But Fischer met with no traces of this worship in the southern parts of the country, where the most respected animal is a species of stork, which also preys on carrion and follows the warriors on all their marauding expeditions. The dead are not buried, but exposed under some wide-branching tree. To consign them to the earth would be regarded as an act of desecration. Hence passing caravans are obliged to carry all their dead with them, the bodies being usually concealed in a bale of cotton goods. Were their presence suspected the convoy would be turned back, to keep the sacred soil of Masai Land from the risk of pollution by their burial. The Gallas and Neighbouring Tribes. In the Tana basin the southward displacement of the Bantu populations has been caused by the Galla hordes advancing from the north, Thes3 Gallas, who themselves suffer from the encroachments of the Somali people, are probably the original stock whence the Masai branched off at some remote period. On this southern verge of their extensive domain they formerly constituted two main groups, the Bararettas who dwell on the right or southern bank of the Tana, and the Kokawes, who are scattered along the north side of the river, but who have been almost completely exterminated by the Somali. In 1878 all had disappeared except four village settlements, and there can be no doubt that all the Gallas of the district would have been swept away but for the timely intervention of the Swaheli and Arab traders on their behalf. These traders settled along the neigh- bouring coast had certainly no great love for the insolent Galla people, and would have complacently looked on at their utter extermination, but for the fact that thereby they would lose an established market and regular customers for their wares. Having been plundered of all their cattle, the local Galla communities have been compelled to take to the chase, to agriculture and trade, pursuits altogether repugnant to the great bulk of the nation. Their clans are governed by the heiyu, or chief, who is chosen from some distinguished family, and whf» is himself subor- dinate to a higher chief, also appointed by election, but only for a term of seven years. This advanced southern branch of the great Ilm-Orma nation is fully conscious of their common origin with the northern Galla people, to whom they are said occasionally to dispatch envoys. North-west of Lake Baringo the district watered by the upper course of the Wei- Wei, which flows northwards in the direction of the Zamburu, is inhabited by the Wukiimasia and Wa-Klgeyo tribes. Although certainly related to the Masai, these peaceful and industrious peoples betray little resemblance in their social usages to their fierce and predatory neighbours. Their tutelar deity is not the repulsive hyaena, but the fertilising water, which they show great skill in distributing through an intricate system of irrigating canals over their fields and gardens. When crossing any of these running waters they seldom fail to manifest 121— AF 870 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. their respect by expectorating on a tuft of herbage, and then casting it into the stream. Topography. Since the Portu'>'ues9 have h rl to abandon the stations and strongholds which they possessed on the East African seaboard north of Zanzibar, the whole of the commercial movement between the coast towns and the inland regions has fallen into the hands of the Arab and Swaheli traders. The latter especially are proud of their decided genius for trade, and should any doubt be expressed regarding the success of their undertakiogs, they are apt to exclaim. " Are we not Swaheli ?" as if that were sufficient to guarantee a favourable issue. Till recently not a single Kuropean merchant had gained a footing on any part of this coast, and the onlv whites in the whole country were the Protestant missionaries stationed at Magila in Usambara, at Freretown and Rabai in the vicinity of Mombaz. But a change has taken place since the steamers plying between Zanzibar and Aden have begun to call regularly at some of the intermediate seaports along this coast. Nor can there be any doubt that in the near future the seaboard towns whence the caravans start for ^lasai Laud and the shores of Lake Victoria Nyanza must become important centres of European influence as well as of direct com- mercial relations with the interior, independent altogether of the Zanzibar em- porium. The group of villages situated near the mouth of the Pangani on its left bank, already constitutes a town of some importance. Over a thousand Swahelis, Wazeguha>j, and half-caste Negroes have here erected their little houses or huts on a low-lying phtin bordered seawards by a fringe of mangrove forest. On the opposite or right side the village of Bnani nestles at the foot of a nearly vertical eminence ahout 200 feet high. Before the loss of the caravan which started from P(ut(jani in the year 187S, this place was almost exclusively chosen for the equip- ment of the trading expeditions destined to proceed from the coast to the Kilima- Njaro region, and the territory of the southern Masai tribes. Since the recent treaties with the Zju/.ibar Government, its custom-house is in the hands of German officials. Till recently the Arabs, properly so-called, took scarcely any share in the commerci d life of Pangani. They are more numerous at Tonga {Muoa), a town situated on the south side of a small but sheltered haven which communicates with the sea by a deep channel winding between two walls of coral reefs. Of all the towns lying north of Pangani on the mainland, Tanga, which is girdled round by a zone of cocoanut groves, offei-s the greatest abundance of provisions to passing vessels. It forwards a great part of its live stock to the Zanzibar shambles, and also yields considerable quantities of fruits and vegetables. It was at Tanga that Haron von der Decken equipped his caravan for his famous expedition to Kilima- Njaro. Muoroi'go, which lies on Tangata Bay between Pangani and Tanga, is also a fnH|ucnted little seaport. In the neighbourhood are seen numerous niins and lombs of uncerlain origin. , Mombaz, the Mombasa of the Arabs, the Mvita of the Swaheli traders, the city sung by Camoens in the "Lusiad," was already a famous place even before the arrival of the Portuguese navigators. In the fourteenth century it was the residence of the king of the Zenj state, and was at that time described as "a great city visited by ships." When Vasco de Gama came to survey the entrance to its port he ran an imminent risk of being taken prisoner. So fur from increasing the commercial activity of Mombaz, the appearance of the Portuguese in these waters marked the

Fig. 112. — Mombaz.

beginning of its decline. The place was again visited by Pedr' Alvares Cabral in 1500, and five years later it was burnt to the ground by Francisco d' Almeida.

In 1528 the Europeans once more established themselves in this seaport, which they again lost and again recovered before the close of the century. By them was erected the imposing fortress which is still seen to the south of the city, crowning a low coralline eminence. On the gateway may even still be read the date, 1635, inscribed by the Portuguese builders of this stronghold. But in 1660 it had already fallen into the hands cf the Imam of Muscat, and in 1698 the Lusitanians were finally expelled from the place. Its Arab masters pulled down the Christian churches, using the materials in the erection of their palaces. Then fresh wars broke out during the eighteenth century, from which, however, the ruler of Muscat came out victorious.

At present the Arabs are merely commercial agents under the protectorate of

Fig. 113. — Port and hills of Mombaz.

Great Britain, but the town itself is little more than a heap of ruins. Recently it had even ceased to be a starting-point of caravans bound for the interior. The three convoys which had successively set out from this place for the purpose of reaching the Kavirondo territory through Masai Land, had each lost over a hundred porters. Consequently traders no longer ventured to send caravans by this dangerous route, which was even completely abandoned during the years 1882 and 1883. "Everywhere ruins of houses and mosques tell the tale of decayed grandeur, of the loss of former spirit, energy, and enterprise. Mud huts are replacing the well-built dwellings of the Mazrui. The Arabs are leaving the town as rats leave a

Fig. 114. — Malindi and Vasco de Gama's pillar.

sinking ship, and a general want of life characterizes this ancient and interesting city."^[3]

The town of Mombaz stands on the east side of a coralline island, which has been upheaved more than 40 feet above the level of the surrounding waters. A few stone houses belonging to some Arab and Hindu traders, together with some groups of native cabins overshadowed by cocoanut groves, constitute the present town. Large vessels ride at anchor in the channel skirting the east side of the island, and forming an excellent harbour perfectly sheltered from all winds, but 874 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. too cmifinod to afford much accommodation for shipping. West of the island, however, there is developed the deep and safe inlet of Kiliudini, which ramifies northwards forming other landlocked basins, where vessels of the largest tonnage might tind ample room in smooth water. The island is connected with the mainland north of Monihaz by a causeway which crosses the estuary at a point where it is almost completely choked by sandbanks. North-east of Mombaz, and on the opposite side of the creek, stands the English station of Frercfoini, so named in honour of Sir Bartle Frere, who took so much interest in the colonisation of these regions by means of emancipated slaves. A headland, rising to the west of Freretowu with its shady raangosteen plantations, is crowned by the village of liabai, which has been occupied since the middle of the century by the missionaries, and which has also received a large number of runaway slaves from the interior. Not far from this station F.tands the ridge of elevated hills which is visible from the sea, and which serves as a landmark to mariners bound for the port of Mombaz. Hence this ridge has received from the rortuf'uese the name of Coroa de Mombaz, that is to say, the " Crown of Mombaz." Of still less importance, at least for the present, are the other seaports which follow northwards between the ancient city and the mouth of the Tana. Kileji {Qmlifa), situated a little to the south of the river of like name, presents nothing but a low beach where the Arab dhows often run aground. The splendid havens in the vicinity ai e now completely abandoned, and Tangauuku, which was a flourishing place in the eighteenth century, is now little more than a camping- ground for the slaves scattered amid the surrounding bush. Farther north stretch the open roadsteads of Malindl {Meliiuli), memorable in the history of n ivigation in the eastern seas. After doubling the Cape of Good IIojK), the intrepid Vasco de Gama touched at this pLice and took on board the pilots, under whose guidance he boldly steered for India. To commemorate his visit he erected, about four miles north of the present town, a pndrao, or pillar, which still exists, inscribed with a cross and the arms of Portugal. This is the only sur- viving monument which still recalls the days of Lusitanian predominance along this section of the seaboard. All the inscriptions hitherto discovered in the ruined grass- grown city, till recently exposed to the nightly visits of the elephant, are of l*ersian or Arab origin. According to the local tradition, Melinda was founded many centuries ago by Persian immigrants from Shiraz. During the period of the Zenj power it was renowned far and wide for its potent magicians and snake- charmers. Pecently this famous seaport has begun to recover a little of its former greatness; but being destitute of a well-sheltered natural harbour, it can never hope to rival the southern ports of Mombaz and Pangani, even should the tide of prosperity again set towards this now desolate seaboard. TfiE EAST AFRICAN ASSOCIATION. 876 Thk British East African Company. This association, founded for the purpose of giving effect to the provisions of the iiiternutional treaties awarding to England the region between the territory of the German East African Society and Somali Land, was virtually constituted a sovereign {)ower under the suzerainty of Great Britain by the issue of royal letters patent in the month of May, 1888. The extent of the territory over which the new state claims jurisdiction has not yet been accurately defined. But, roughly speak- ing, it stretches along the coast from the neighbourhood of Mombaz northwards to the Tana estuary, and thence westwards in the direction of Lake Albert Nyanza. Within this wide range are included the present iHdei)endent native states of Uganda and Unyoro, which, it is assumed, will ultimately accept the British pro- tectorate. Here arc some of the finest lands in the whole of Central Africa, and many parts of the coimtry are thickly inhabited by industrious populations accus- tomed to an organised government. Around the eastern and northern shores of Victoria Nyanza, which are comprised within this domain, there is a more or less settled population of probably over twelve millions, while numerous tribal com- munities are also grouped round the other great central lukes. England had long exercised an informal protectorate over the sultanate of Zanzibar and adjacent lands. But when that protectorate was practically sur- rendered to Germany by the convention of October 29th, 1886, far-seeing politicians felt that it would be unwise to leave to other nations the entire control of the trade routes between the coast of Zanzibar and the great equatorial lake regions. It was also considered that, Central Africa being the chief hunting-ground of the slave-dealers, if a strong administration could once be established in this region an effective check would be put upon the nefarious trade in human fiesh. Actuated by these motives, Mr. D. Mackinnon, of the British India Company, in conjunction with a number of influential persons long identified with philan- thropic work in England and abroad, conceived the idea of founding an East African Association, which should be empowered to perform higher functions than those of a mere trading company. The Sultan of Zanzibar was appealed to in the first instance, and readily induced to make liberal concessions, giving the society control over the seaboard north of the German company's domain, with special privileges constituting it practically an independent state. Included in the concessions are several small islands along the coast, amongst which is the important island of Pemba, hitherto forming an integral part of the Sultan's dominions. But these concessions would be of little practical use without the recognition of the European powers, and especially of Great Britain. For the purpose of securing this recognition representations were made to the British Government early in the year 1888, with the result that a royal charter was granted to the association, authorizing it to assume the administration of the region above roughly outlined. The British East African Company thus stands in the same rela876 SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. tion to the Imperial Government as did the former East India Company, or as does the present North Borneo Association. Under the express terras of the concessions and charter, the company is em- powered to build and maintain fortified stations, to equip ships of war, to enlist and 8ijp|M)rt iin independent force of soldiers and police, make and enforce civil and criminal law, levy customs and taxes, op?n up trade routes, and in general perform all the normal functions of a sovereign power. The affairs of the new state are en' rusted to deputies appointed by the board of managers in London, subject of course to revision and control by the imperial authorities. The company has already taken steps to fortify several of the small islands, and place garrisons in them for the purpose of protecting legitimate trade and checking the Arab slave-dealers. Several stations on the mainland have also been selected, where the flag of the now state will be hoisted, while routes have been traced running inl md along the northern frontier of the German territory, and iK'Vond it towurds Lakes Victoria and Albert Nyanza. In this direction the domain of the British East African Company will ultimately be conterminous with the province of Egyptian Sudan on the White Xile, which was successfully held by Kmin Paslia against the forces of the Mabdi. When Egyptian Sudan is again brought within the spheie of civilising influences, the British protectorate will virtually extend from the Mediterranean up the Xile Valley to the great equatorial lakes, and thence eastwards to the Indian Ocean between Zanzibar and Somali Land.

 

1. From Kilima, Mountain, and Njaro, the name of a demon supposed to cause cold. But this name, current amongst the coast people, is quite unknown to the natives of the interior.
2. Meyer, 19,500; Thomson, 19,800.
3. Thomson, op. cit., p. 38.