An Historical Essay on the Livery Companies of London/The Livery Companies of London

by Richard James Cheeswright

The Livery Companies of London.

"Individuals may form communities; but Institutions must found a Nation."

Their Origin and ObjectsHE LIVERY COMPANIES OF LONDON hold a high rank in the history of the City of London. Their wealth, the important trusts reposed in them, the noble charities and foundation schools they support, and their connection with the civic constitution of the Metropolis, make them not only of primary interest to every Liveryman, but when it is considered that they had the earliest share in laying the foundation of British commerce, that all trade originally concentrated in their fraternities, that their records are for the most part of remote antiquity, and afford pictures of the government, religious customs, habits and expenses of former times, it will be seen that few subjects are more important in a national point of view, or admit of more entertaining illustration. Not only does the history of the Companies offer a mass of most important information as to the trading interests of the community, but the ancient Charters themselves, although usually conceived to be the reverse of entertaining, disclose various curious facts, illustrating the simplicity of early times, and of the infant state of commerce. The City Records, and the valuable Collections in the Corporation and other Libraries, will most amply repay a perusal on this subject, as detailing the manner in which the Companies were first formed into Societies, their places of meeting before the erection of Halls, the curious customs which appertained amongst them (not the least of which was the admission of Sisters as Associates in the Fraternities), their feasts, their set mode of dress, or wearing a Livery—from which they derive their name—their religious ceremonies, their pageants, and the glorious part they have played in upholding the rights and privileges of the community against oppression and wrong.

GildsThe Livery Companies of London derive their origin from the early associations termed Gilds, which were either Ecclesiastic or Secular.

The Ecclesiastical Gilds were founded for Devotion and Almsdeeds.

The Secular Gilds were formed for purposes of trade and almsdeed. The whole of these associations were at first composed of persons actually and not nominally professing the trades from which they took denomination. The Charters furnish abundant information as to the kind of authority exercised by the Gilds before such Grants were made, and also of the manner in which they governed themselves.

Their Antiquity.These Gilds are of the most ancient repute. In the reign of Henry H they are spoken of as common Institutions. In the same reign the Exchequer History gives a list of 18, which were amerced as "adulterine," or set up without the King's License.

Their Charters.Various Companies received their Charters from Henry II, John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V, Queen Elizabeth, James I, Philip and Mary, and others.

The Steel Yard Merchants settled in London in A.D. 967, dealing in grain, flax, cloth, and linen; they swore to remain unmarried. Gradually this Gild decayed, and in 1552 was dissolved. The Mercers, in the year 1172, held lands granted by Gilbert a'Beckett (Father of the great Archbishop.) A few years later, in 1226, a quarrel took place between the Goldsmiths and Merchant Taylors (then called the Linen Armourers.) Each party—assisted by other Companies—met on an appointed night to the number of 500 men, completely armed, and proceeded to fight manfully. Many were killed and wounded on each side, nor could they be parted until the Sheriffs came and apprehended the ringleaders, thirteen of whom were condemned and executed.

The purposes and functions of the Gilds were manifold; they supported, protected, and regulated trade; preserved trade secrets, and generally watched over the interest of their particular Craft or Fraternity; searching for spurious goods, testing weights and measures, and imprisoning dishonest traders.

The Gilds were of the greatest service to trade in ancient times, they settled disputes between Master and Workmen—they upheld the Apprenticeship system as being the best for producing skilled labour, and meeting at their respective Halls, while they enjoyed the festive board, they discussed business matters, thus fostering the social virtues, and increasing the mutual interest of Master and Workmen.

The Master of the Gild (under the name of Alderman), was for the time being omnipotent; members of the Gild could not leave London without his permission; the apprentices were strictly ruled; they were bound at the age of 14, and having served their seven years, and being of age and good name, they were then sworn and admitted as Freemen. If a man wanted to follow any Craft in the City, or to enjoy any of the benefits of Citizenship, he must belong to a Gild.

The reign of Edward III, the great dawn of the fine arts and of commerce, gave birth to an entire reconstruction of the trading fraternities, and of the change of name from Gilds to Crafts and Mysteries, and the substitution for the old title of Alderman that of Master or Warden. Special Charters were granted by Edward III, but the Chartering of the Gilds was not the only favor granted by that Monarch. Having found them to be the mainspring of the trade and industry of his Kingdom, he determined to raise them in public estimation. Their Members.He became a member of the Linen Armourers (now the Merchant Tailors), which was the first Company to boast a Sovereign amongst its members. Richard II afterwards became a member of the same Company, and the great, both Clergy and Laity, as well as the principal Citizens, hastened to become enrolled as members of the various fraternities. The Skinners, the Merchant Tailors, and the Mercers, are said to exhibit most princes and nobility in their lists near this time; other Companies had a greater proportion of City dignitaries. The Grocers, towards the close of Edward the Ill's reign, enumerated no less than 16 Aldermen amongst its members, the Cutlers Company doubtless receives no inconsiderable share of such members.

Very many distinguished personages have in our own time taken up the Freedom of the Companies and become enrolled as members thereof.

In the reign of Richard II the Inrolment of the Companies' Charters was, first insisted upon. The following list will shew the date of the Incorporation of a considerable number of the Companies, viz.:—

The Bakers	1155	Henry II.
The Goldsmiths⁠	1180⁠	Henry II.
The Butchers	1180	Henry II.
The Sadlers	1272	Edward I.
The Skinners	1327	Edward III.
The Carpenters	1344	Edward III.
The Grocers	1345	Edward III.
The Vintners	1365	Edward III.
The Fishmongers	1384	Richard II.
The Mercers	1393	Richard II.
The Salters	1394	Richard II.
The Haberdashers	1407	Henry IV.
The Cordwainers	1410	Henry IV.
The Cutlers	1413	Henry V.
The Armourers	1423	Henry VI.
The Brewers	1438	Henry VI.
The Drapers	1439	Henry VI.
The Leathersellers	1442	Henry VI.
The Barber Surgeons	1461	Edward IV.
The Ironmongers	1463	Edward IV.
The Tallow Chandlers	1463	Edward IV.
The Merchant Tailors	1466	Edward IV.
The Dyers	1472	Edward IV.
The Pewterers	1474	Edward IV.
The Cooks	1480	Edward IV.
The Clothworkers	1482	Edward IV.
The Joiners	1569	Elizabeth.

Their Halls.The greater part of the Halls which existed before or near the Reformation appear to have been formed from the deserted mansions of the great, and from buildings devoted to religious purposes. Drapers Hall was a mansion belonging to Lord Cromwell; Salters Hall belonged to the Earl of Oxford; The Grocers built their Hall on the site of Lord Fitzwalter's town mansion; the minor companies, in several instances, bought and converted the Halls of the dissolved religious houses into Trade Halls, as, for instance, the Leathersellers, who fitted up the fine hall of the Nuns of St. Helens; the Pinners, who occupied the Austin Friars Hall, afterwards called "Pinners Hall Meeting House"; the Barber Surgeons, who built on part of the site of the Hermitage of St. James-in-the-Wall, and others.

Some of the larger Halls were used for other than trade purposes. By the Parliamentary commanders they were converted into barracks; by the Puritanical clergy into meeting houses; and by succeeding Lord Mayors they were occasionally used as temporary Mansion Houses.

Religious Observances.The records of the various Companies shew that it was usual with the fraternity to pay very particular attention to religious observances on the occasions of elections, funerals, and obits of deceased members. The obit was the anniversary of the death of an individual, and to observe such a day with prayer, almsgiving, or other commemoration, was "keeping an obit." After the Reformation the Liturgy and sermons took the place of Mass, but these occasions of divine service were not so numerous as under the old system. On public days the Chaplain's duty was to pray for the prosperity of the fraternity. In some Companies a very solemn custom prevailed of calling over the names of the members one by one, and praying for each individually and by name. The Merchant Tailors' books in 1645 record that "The names of the Livery being called over according to ancient custom, after which, in reverent manner, prayer was made by the Chaplain, then some of the ordinances of the Hall being openly read, preparation was made for dinner."

Besides these occasions of public worship prayers were said in the Common Hall. Herbert gives an extract of the prayer used as follows:—"Good Lord, keep this noble City of London, and defend it from greivous plagues and contagious sickness, that we may often in brotherly and true love assemble and meet together to Thy glory and our mutual comfort; bless this society and brotherhood, and be present with us in all our assemblies and councils that we may use them to Thy Glory and the discharge of our duties."

The plate belonging to the Companies was frequently chased in accordance with their ecclesiastical character, being ornamented with the figure of a saint or some other religious device.

Pageants.All royal processions into or through the City afforded an opportunity for the Citizens of London and the Liverymen of the various Companies to display their loyalty.

It is recorded that on the occasion of the marriage of Henry III in 1236, and again on the marriage. of his daughter in 1252, the return of Edward I from his victory over the Scots, 1298; the coronation procession of Henry IV in 1399 (when Froissart states "Cheapside to have had seven fountains with red and white wine"); the entry of Queen Margaret into England in 1466; the entry of Joan, Queen of Henry IV in 1401; on the arrival of Henry V; the coming of the same King from France to London; after the victory of Bosworth, Henry VII; 1485, the Coronation of his Queen, 1487; on the arrival of Princess Katharine from Spain, to marry Prince Arthur 5th of Henry VII; in 1509, when Henry VIII married Katharine (his Brother's Widow); the Coronation of Lady Anne Boleyn in 1533; and many other interesting occasions, it is stated "That the whole Commonalty of the City who seem to have been Liverymen, brought up the rear, clothed in white gowns and scarlet hoods, with divers conuzances embroidered on their 'sleeves.'"

At the Royal Funerals the attendance of the various Companies was also required.

The Warden of one of the Chief Livery Companies was allowed to attend the Lord Mayor as Chief Butler at a Coronation.

In the year 1559 the twelve principal Corporations of London sent all the same number of Companies, consisting together of 1,500 men, to be mustered in Greenwich Park before the Queen, 800 whereof were pikemen in high armour, 400 harquebusers in coats of mail and helmets, and 200 halberdiers in German rivets. These troops were attended by twenty-eight whifflers, richly dressed, and led by the twelve principal Wardens of the aforesaid Corporations, well mounted, and dressed in black velvet, with six ensigns in white satin, faced with black sarsnet and rich scarves.

Their Feasts.The Companies, from their wealth and abundant entertainments, became sources of attraction to those who loved the good things of life.

The Election Feasts in the Halls were especially grand, and were partaken of by Royalty and by the first nobility. These Feasts took place after the ceremonies, when the newly-elected Master and Wardens were "crowned with garlands on their heads." Then followed the "Loving Cup," as is still the custom; next the Minstrels and Players.

Various were the delicacies stored above the Salt at the Feasts, including the "Mighty Baron," "Frumentie with Venison," "Brawn Fat," Swan, "Boar," Conger, and Sea Hog.

The Salt or Salt Cellar was a large piece of plate forming a division between the upper and lower parts of the Table. To be seated above the Salt was a mark of honor, and our ancestors seem often to have placed persons below it in order to mortify them.

During the Feasts the Halls were "aromatized" with a precious Indian wood.

Mention has been made of the introduction of females to the Membership of the Companies. They appear also to have enjoyed the festivities at which they were allowed to be present. The Grocer's ordinances in 1348 show that the "brethren" could introduce their fair acquaintance on paying for their admission.

The Clothworkers gave a grand dinner to James I on his inauguration as a Member of that Company, and it is recorded that in the old Hall of the Company the glorious anthem, "God save the King," was first heard; Dr. John Bull having composed it expressly for the ceremony.

The "Loving Cup" is a great feature in the Feasts of the Companies. It is of Silver or Silver Gilt, and is filled with spiced wine immemorially called " Sack." Immediately after the Dinner and the Grace, the Master and Wardens drink to their visitors "A hearty welcome." The cup is then passed round the table, and each guest, after he has drank, applies his napkin to the mouth of the Cup before he passes it to his neighbour. The more formal practice is for the person who pledges with the loving Cup to stand up and bow to his neighbour, who, also standing, removes the Cover with his right hand and holds it while the other drinks; a custom said to have originated in the precaution to keep the right or "dagger hand" employed that the person who drinks may be assured of no treachery like that practised by Elfrida on the unsuspecting King Edward the Martyr at Corfe Castle, who was slain while drinking. This is also given as the reason for a Cover being placed on the Loving Cup.

It was when the "Loving Cup" (as is still the custom) had gone round that the Minstrels and Players commenced their part of the Entertainments. The Minstrels, who were of various kinds, included in their entries harpers who played and sang in the intervals of the others sounding their cornets, shalms, flutes, horns, and pipes. The Players were generally ecclesiastics, who were the first actors of the middle ages, and an original license from the Master of the Revels in 1662 authorizes "George Bailey and eight servants to play for one year a play called 'Noah's Flood.'" The sort of dramas then in fashion often consisted of single subjects, and made but for one performance.

Their Government and Officers.The government of the various Companies was by bye-laws or ordinances—the preserving of their trade secrets being a primary one, and continued their leading law so long as they remained actual "Working Companies," whence arose the names of "Mysteries and Crafts," by which they have been so many years designated. The officers generally consisted of the Alderman (subsequently named Master or Warden), Assistants, a Priest or Chaplain, a Clerk, a Beadle, and a Cook—the latter considered a most important officer in those days.

The Civic authorities exercised an undoubted control over the Companies. The Mayor could fine and imprison the Wardens of Companies at pleasure, and it was common to make presents, or, what in modern times would be called 'give a bribe' to the Mayor, in order to obtain favour during his year of Mayoralty.

In the 5th of Henry IV, the absolute control the Mayor had acquired over the Companies was remarkably exemplified in some proceedings which took place on a dispute between the Goldsmiths and the Cutlers; when the former having petitioned the King to confirm their right of search, granted by Edward III, and which they extended to the oversight of the Cutlers, the latter in a counter petition denied such right of oversight to reside anywhere but in the four wardens "de artifice de cotellerie." Both these petitions being considered by Parliament, it was directed "that a writ should be sent to the Mayor of London, and that he should be empowered, by authority of Parliament, to summon the folk of both the Goldsmiths and the Cutlers mysteries, who should produce their ancient evidences and usages on both sides before him, and which said Mayor should, if needful, certify the result, without delay, to the King in Council, in order that the King, on deliberation, and with the advice of the Lords spiritual and temporal, might act as the case should require." The writs to the Mayor on this occasion, as well on behalf of the Goldsmiths as the Cutlers, command—"that in consequence of certain petitions, which had been presented to the King in his present Parliament, by the Goldsmiths and the Cutlers, and which petitions were enclosed, he should, on reading the same, do what was right on behalf of each, and make return thereof, under his seal, to the King in his then Parliament, who would determine thereupon,"

The return of the Mayor specified "that by virtue of two writs of the Lord the King, directed to him, William Ascham, Mayor of London, he had inspected the petitions of the Goldsmiths and Cutlers, and had caused to appear before him, at the Guildhall of the said City, as well the sufficient men of the said Mysteries as several other good and sufficient aged men of each ward of the City, and had had exhibited to him by the said Goldsmiths and Cutlers, their charters, inrolments, and evidences, as well written as not written, concerning the rules, usages, assaying and governments of the said Mysteries; and by which it appeared to him, the Mayor, that the Cutlers had of old times occupied their works of gold and silver within the City as the changes of time and fashion demanded; and that the Wardens of the Mystery of Goldsmiths, for the time being, subject to the oversight of the Mayor and Aldermen of the said City, had from old times been accustomed to have the assay of the gold and silver work of the said Cutlers within the City of London."

Their PrivilegesThe Citizens of London by various Royal Grants obtained the privilege of choosing their own Lord Mayors and Chief Magistrates. They were elected by the Court of Aldermen and a number of Commoners summoned by them out of each ward; but the numbers being often varied at the discretion of the Alderman gave great uneasiness to the Commonalty, for the removing of which the method of election was altered by an Act of Common Council passed in 1476, whereby the manner of electing by the Liverymen of the several Companies was established. By virtue of this Act, the Lord Mayor or Chief Magistrate is annually chosen on Michaelmas Day, for which purpose the Liverymen assemble in the Guildhall on that day, when by holding up of hands they choose two of the Senior Aldermen below the chair, who being returned to the Courts of Lord Mayor and Aldermen, the Senior Alderman is commonly declared Lord Mayor Elect.

The Livery Companies formerly exercised the right of sending members to the Court of Common Council. By a list amongst the City records (50 Edward III), it appears the Companies sending Members in pursuance of their powers were increased from 32 to 48. The Cutlers Company are mentioned in the list as choosing two Members. This right was ultimately taken away, and the Members of the Court of Common Council are now elected by the inhabitant householders of the various wards.

The Parliamentary representatives were also exclusively elected by the Freemen; but this privilege was lost through the operations of the Reform Bill.

It will be interesting to note here that the first grant of a Charter to the City of London was that made by William the Conqueror.

Their Troubles and Recovery.The Livery Companies having gradually increased in numbers, engrossed the trade of the Kingdom and selected the bulk of the Common Council, acquired such wealth and consequence as to attract the especial attention of the government. The custom of forced loans which had been begun by Henry VIII was carried on to a most oppressive extent, and the extracting of money from the trading corporations became a regular source of supply to the government. Precepts were made on all the Companies alike towards setting the poor to work, towards erecting the Royal Exchange, cleansing the city ditch, projects for discovering new countries, for furnishing naval and military armaments, for men, arms, and ammunition to protect the city, for state and city pageants, for provision of corn and coal, compulsory loans for the government and for the Crown, and various other expedients, were amongst the most prominent by which it was contrived to screw from the Companies their wealth.

Large amounts were also raised by forced loans for the purchase of foreign wheat as a provision of corn for the city. (In a list published in 1545, the Court of Common Council directed a large loan to be raised for this purpose, the Cutlers' proportion being stated in the list at £10.) These precepts were unwillingly complied with, and in 1561 the Mercers caused an application to be made for the return of their money, 'formerly lent.' This was answered by another precept being made.

Besides the arbitrary operation of precepts, both Elizabeth and her immediate successors made it a business of their reigns to influence the selection of officers and the control of the property of the Companies. Instances are recorded of this nature with respect to the Ironmongers, the Merchant Tailors, the Grocers, and other Companies; these attempts were finally resisted and ultimately ceased.

The disastrous effects of the reign of Charles and of the civil wars was much felt by the Livery Companies; precepts were made for large amounts and had to be met by each Liveryman; thus for one loan of £40,000 the Ironmongers' proportion was from £10 to £15 each on those who had fined for Master; £6 18s. 4d. on the office of Warden; from each Liveryman £5; and from each Freeman £3.

To furnish the loans thus arbitrarily and rapidly levied, the individuals of the Companies had at this time not only impoverished themselves, but all the fraternities were obliged to sell or pawn their plate.

The Companies took a conspicuous part in the rejoicings to celebrate the Restoration. Charles was, however, scarcely established on the throne than he cast a longing eye on the wealth of the Companies. In 1684 he brought the whole of them under complete subjection to the Crown through the operation of the quo warranto—an enquiry into the validity of the City Charter, the result of which rendered the King not only master of London but of all the Corporations in England. Almost all the Companies surrendered their Charters. The new Charters granted by Charles contained such prohibitions as showed that all liberty of action was completely destroyed, and that the Companies were only to exist during the royal pleasure.

The first act of James II (1685) was an attempt to influence the Companies' selection of voters.

The news of the approach of the Prince of Orange in 1688 forced from James II an Act of Restitution, by which all restrictions consequent on the quo warranto were repealed. The City Charter was restored, and the Statute 2 of William and Mary passed, which not only reversed the quo warranto, but enacted that all and every of the several Companies of the City of London shall be restored to all their Charters and privileges, lands, tenements, and estates.

Tranquility and confidence having been restored after the Accession of William and Mary, and the privileges and rights of corporate bodies firmly established by Parliament, the affairs of the Livery Companies began to improve. During the interval between that time and the present, various minor events and changes have occurred in their separate histories and government which do not, however, need recapitulation here. May they by their patriotic action, their wisdom in the management of their estates, and their charitable deeds, continue to be, as they most assuredly are, the most powerful and charitable body in the world.

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Addenda.Although, perhaps, not strictly within the scope of the History of the City Companies, a few remarks on the subject of the Great Plague and the Great Fire, and the Monument erected to commemorate the latter event, and by which the interests of the Companies were undoubtedly affected, may not be out of place here.

Great Plague.About the beginning of May, 1665, one of the most terrible plagues that ever affected this, or perhaps any other country, broke out in the City; its ravages were so dreadful that in the course of the year nearly 90, 000 persons perished. The King's Court and the Parliament removed from London to Oxford. All business and pleasure were naturally suspended, and it appears the distress of the poorer classes was such that, for the relief of their pressing necessities, the Livery Companies were assessed by the Parliament for various sums of money, and were bound, in addition, to furnish a certain quantity of coals, of which the proportion of the Cutlers was 75 chaldrons.

Great Fire.In the year 1666, one of the most dreadful conflagrations that ever happened in any age or country broke out in the City. The fire commenced in Pudding Lane, and extended its ravages to the Temple, and northward as far as London Wall; it laid waste and consumed the buildings on four hundred and thirty-six acres of ground, four hundred streets, lanes, &c., thirteen thousand two hundred houses, the Cathedral Church of St. Paul, eighty-six Parish Churches, six Chapels, the magnificent buildings of Guildhall, the Royal Exchange, Custom House, divers Hospitals and Libraries, fifty-two of the Companies' Halls, and a vast number of other stately edifices, together with three of the City gates, four stone bridges, and the prisons of Newgate, the Fleet, the Poultry, and Wood Street Compters; the loss of which, together with the merchandise and household furniture, was calculated to amount to ten millions seven hundred and thirty thousand pounds. During the whole of this terrible devastation only six persons lost their lives. The City Companies suffered terribly by the fire. It melted their plate, burnt their records, and laid their premises, from which they chiefly derived their income, in ashes; and to crown their calamities they found themselves overwhelmed with a load of debt (the consequence of the compulsory loans to the Crown), and which they had now no means of paying. By extraordinary exertion, however, by subscriptions and collections amongst themselves, and by the donations of their wealthier members (some of them to great amount), the whole of the Companies had their Halls rebuilt in two or three years, and generally in a superior manner to the former buildings. Their houses and premises also, by granting advantageous leases to the tenants, arose everywhere again with the new Metropolis. As early as 1670 the old order of things was quite restored, and the Companies started on a new course of prosperity.

The MonumentThe Monument was erected in Fish Street Hill to perpetuate the remembrance of the Fire; the architect was Sir Christopher Wren. In height it is 202 feet from the ground (being 20 feet higher than Trojan's Column at Rome). Within is a large staircase of black marble, containing 345 steps, ten inches and a half broad and six-inch risers, and a balcony within thirty-two feet of the top, which allows room to walk. It was commenced in the year 1671 (Sir Richard Knight being Lord Mayor of London), and was finished in the year 1677, Sir Thomas Davis being then Lord Mayor.