History of Iowa From the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the Twentieth Century/1/5
BY the cession to Spain in 1762 of that portion of Louisiana lying west of the Mississippi River the French, who had slowly extended their settlements into that region, were, against their will, made subjects of an alien government. When Spain undertook to extend its dominion over its newly acquired possessions, the Acadians and Creoles resisted and drove the Spanish officials from the country.
In 1768 Governor Don O'Reilly, the new Spanish ruler, landed at New Orleans with a strong force, suppressed the insurrection, and inaugurated Spanish rule. The population of Louisiana, at this time, was about 13,500, although more than seventy years had elapsed since the first French colony had been established. But few settlements had been made west of the Mississippi, the most important of which were at St. Genevieve and St. Louis.
The use of Spanish courts, laws and language was decreed in the province to the intense disgust of its French population. Spain at this time claimed the region on both sides of the Mississippi River for the first three hundred miles above its mouth, and west to the Pacific Ocean. Spain was endeavoring to strengthen her grasp on American territory along the Gulf of Mexico and throughout the country lying north and west. The free navigation of the river to its mouth became of vital importance to the United States, as it was the only commercial outlet for its possessions in that valley.
As the great prairies were yearly attracting settlers from the eastern States, Spain realized that before long she would be compelled to yield the free navigation of the lower river unless the inhabitants of the upper valley could be alienated from their allegiance to the United States. To permit the free navigation of the river appeared to Spain like laying the foundation for the ultimate loss of her American possessions.
The settlements in the valley were separated by wide stretches of wilderness, with no prospect of markets or access to the commerce of the world, save through the Spanish dominions. These settlements were surrounded by hostile Indians and remote from protection of the home government. Their navigable rivers all led to the Mississippi. Spain saw the necessity and used all of these arguments to persuade settlers to unite with the Spanish possessions and separate themselves from the United States. The pressure was increased by levying heavy duties upon all imports the settlers received by way of the lower Mississippi. These duties were arbitrary. Every boat passing up or down the lower river was required to land and submit to these exactions under penalty of seizure, Confiscation and imprisonment of the crew. The Spanish officers enriched themselves from these exorbitant taxes.
The pioneers of the valley were poor, and endured all the hardships and privations inseparable from settlement in a wild country. They were wholly dependent upon their own ingenuity and toil for the common necessaries of life and they felt keenly the merciless taxation that was levied upon a traffic which brought them a scanty supply of groceries and hardware in exchange for their products. Spain insolently refused to even grant them the free navigation of the river, unless they would unite their fortunes with Spanish Louisiana and separate from their own kindred and country.
In 1786 John Jay, the American minister to Spain, having failed to procure concessions from the government on this point, in compliance with instructions from Washington, almost consented to waive the right of free navigation for twenty years, provided Spain would concede that right at the expiration of that period. A knowledge of this timid policy aroused intense indignation among the settlers in the upper valley, who determined to assert their rights by force if abandoned by their own government. They proposed to organize an army and seize the Spanish posts, capture New Orleans and compel the recognition of their claims.
The Spanish governor, Muro, realized that some concessions must be made or his province might be invaded by an army of backwoodsmen whose fame as expert riflemen was a terror to the Spanish authorities. He therefore granted the privilege of free trade to James Wilkinson and certain other Americans in tobacco, flour and other products. Spanish emissaries were sent into the settlements with promises of great commercial advantages if the people would declare their independence of the Federal Government. Spain in this event proposed to forever guarantee the free navigation of the Mississippi. Many citizens who had waited long years for relief through their own government were disposed to enter into the scheme that promised such great and immediate benefits. They would establish an independent government. But a large majority of the settlers were loyal to their country.
In 1788, after years of fruitless negotiations with Spain, Congress declared “that the free navigation of the Mississippi River is a clear and essential right of the United States and that it ought to be enforced.” The western people rejoiced greatly over this declaration and became convinced that the government would protect their interests. Spain finally realized its danger. A war would almost certainly result in the loss of Louisiana and probably Florida.
General Washington, who was President, began to prepare for a conflict which seemed likely to come. Spain still delayed making any concessions, hoping the western people might be won over to separation from the Union. Untiring efforts were made, through secret emissaries traveling among the settlements, to bring on a movement for independence. In order to embarrass the Government of the United States and alienate the western people, Spanish emissaries were sent among the Indian tribes in the south and British emissaries, co-operating in the northwest, endeavored to bring on a general Indian war. The “Whisky Rebellion” in Pennsylvania and an Indian war in the west conspired to encourage Spain to postpone any substantial concession.
About this time it was proposed by the American minister at Madrid that if Spain would cede to the United States her possessions east of the Mississippi, including the island and city of New Orleans, that the United States would make no claim to the vast territory west of the river, as her real interest would then require that Spain should retain her possessions west of it. Since the free navigation of the river was of such absolute necessity to the United States, it must sooner or later be conceded. The minister said:
But Spain still procrastinated. She seemed to realize that the only security she had in her American possessions was in holding her vantage ground and checking the onward tide of emigration that was menacing Louisiana.
And thus for more than twelve years were the American settlers in the Mississippi Valley kept in suspense and subjection to Spanish cupidity. General Carondelet of Louisiana now made a final effort to detach the western territory from the American Union. He sent Lieutenant-Governor Gayoso of Natchez as a special agent to the mouth of the Ohio River to meet four of the most prominent of the American conspirators—Sebastian, Innis, Murray and Nicholas—to arrange the terms of an alliance between Kentucky, Tennessee and adjacent territory, and Louisiana under the Spanish government. But General Wayne had defeated the hostile Indians; the rebellion in Pennsylvania had been suppressed, and the American army was now free to attend to this incipient revolution. The conspirators became timid and Judge Sebastian of Kentucky was the only one who ventured to meet the Spanish commissioner. The United States officers were on the alert, and Judge Sabastian, fearing arrest, fled to New Orleans. Spain was now becoming deeply involved in European wars, and fearing an invasion of Louisiana by the long suffering pioneers, finally proposed a settlement of the controversy.
A treaty was concluded on the 20th of October, 1795, by which the middle of the Mississippi River was made the western boundary of the United States from the thirty-first degree of latitude to its source, and navigation made free to its mouth. Spanish rule in Louisiana was drawing to a close. The French nation had never become reconciled to the loss of its possessions in America, which had been surrendered by a weak king. Under the brilliant young first consul, Napoleon, France had become the most powerful nation of Europe. Spain had been compelled to how to his iron will. Napoleon resolved to restore to France her former possessions in the Valley of the Mississippi. On the first of October, 1801, a treaty was made with Spain by which she ceded to France all of the province of Louisiana; but before Napoleon could take possession of the newly acquired American province, England and her allies were pressing the French armies so hard that Napoleon feared the powerful British navy would seize and blockade the ports of Louisiana, thus cutting France off from her new acquisitions. The French and Americans were traditional friends and, in order to save Louisiana from England, Napoleon determined to transfer it to a friendly power able to defend and hold it. This acquisition by the American Republic would greatly strengthen that rising nation, make it a formidable rival of Great Britain and enable it to check the rapacious policy of British power in American.
Confidential negotiations were opened with the American minister to France and the scheme was at once communicated to President Jefferson. He was rejoiced at the prospect of being able to secure, by peaceable means, such a vast and important addition to the territory of the new Republic. On the 30th of April, 1803, this treaty was concluded by which Louisiana was ceded to the United States for $15,000,000.
When this treaty negotiated by Jefferson's administration came before the Senate for ratification, constitutional objections were made; but in view of the national, commercial and financial benefits to be derived, opposition soon disappeared. All came to see the wisdom and broad statesmanship of the great author of the immortal Declaration of Independence. This act extended our dominion form the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean and gave to the growing young nation the vast empire out of which the Indian and Oklahoma territories and the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Montana, Washington, Oregon and Iowa have been organized. Louisiana embraced an area greater than all of our possessions at that time lying east of the Mississippi River.
A secret clause had been inserted in the treaty of 1801, between France and Spain, which provided that if France should ever permit Louisiana to pass out of her possession, Spain should have the exclusive right to re-purchase it. But so great had become the power and influence of Napoleon through his invincible armies in Spain, that he now readily coerced that kingdom to waive all right under this secret provision and permit the sale to the United States.
The extent of the territory, then known as Louisiana, had never been realized by any of its possessors. Louis XIV of France had at one time actually granted that unexplored region to a private citizen, M. Crosat, who, in consideration of the grant, was to pay to the king one-fifth of the gold and silver annually which it should yield. This was by far the most munificent grant of public domain ever made by a sovereign to a subject; but after a few years search for the precious metals Crosat, discouraged by failure, regarded the possessions worthless and relinquished them to the crown. A few years later the same tract was granted to the famous John Law, who used it to inaugurate one of the most gigantic real estate speculations ever devised. After its collapse, the grant was again relinquished.
This treaty, which had been negotiated on the part of the United States by Robert R. Livingston, minister plenipotentiary, and James Monroe, envoy extraordinary, was ratified by the Senate on the 19th of October, 1803, and, by act of the 31st of October, President Jefferson was authorized by Congress to take possession of and occupy the country. On the 20th of December possession was taken by the Government at New Orleans through Governor William C. C. Claiborne, who had been appointed by the President.
Our new possessions proved to be of greater value than all the territory conquered and held by Napoleon during his brilliant and unscrupulous wars of conquest in Europe and Africa. No such acquisition of valuable territory was ever before made peaceably by any nation in the world's history. The industrial, commercial, political and geographical importance of this region were colossal and inestimable. It rounded out our territorial possessions, opened up the inland water route to the sea and at one step lifted the young Republic into rank and power with the first nations of the earth.
The accompanying map shows on the extreme east the territory embraced in the thirteen original States which in 1776 declared their independence from British rule
MAP SHOWING THE EXTENT OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
and in the war of the Revolution won the right to self-government. The area of the thirteen original colonies embraced 420,892 square miles, and the region lying between these States and the Mississippi River claimed and held by the Republic embraced an area of 406,952 square miles, making the entire area of the United States after the close of the Revolution 827,844 square miles.
The Louisiana Purchase secured by treaty with France contained an area of 1,171,931 square miles, exceeding in size by 344,087 square miles all of the former territory of the United States.
Florida, which was acquired from Spain in 1819, contained 59,268 square miles; and the territory acquired from Mexico, including Texas, covered an area of 967,451 square miles. But this last acquisition was only won by an aggressive war upon a neighbor greatly inferior in strength and reflected no credit upon the powerful Republic which was founded upon the right of people to self-government.
The almost unexplored province of Louisiana had been discovered by Spanish adventurers in 1542, but abandoned by them for one hundred and thirty years before French explorers took possession if it in the name of their king. It was held by France for eighty-two years, from 1681 to 1763, when it was ceded to Spain. During this period of more than two and a half centuries the entire white population of this immense fertile territory had only reached about fifty thousand, while the exports amounted to but $2,158,000, and the imports to $2,500,000.
Up to the close of the Revolutionary War Virginia claimed all of the tract lying north and west of Ohio River in the United States, as well as Kentucky. In 1784 Virginia ceded to the United States all of its claim to the region north of the Ohio River and west to the Mississippi. In the same year a treaty was made with the Sioux Indians, who claimed a large portion of this territory, by which they relinquished their claim to all west of the State of New York. By another treaty made with other western tribes, a large portion of Ohio was relinquished and opened to settlement by whites.
On the 20th of May, 1785, Congress passed an act providing for the survey of public lands. These lands were divided into townships six miles square, the ranges of townships to be numbered from the Pennsylvania boundary west, and the townships themselves to be numbered north from a point on the Ohio River due north of the western termination of the southern boundary of Pennsylvania. The townships were divided into thirty-six sections each one mile square. This was the origin of our excellent system of surveying, dividing and describing of public lands. Some changes have been made by subsequent legislation, but the system remains substantially as it was originated at that time.[1]
After the surveys were made and recorded, the lands within certain limits were offered for sale at not less than one dollar and a quarter per acre. It was a part of the plan of Congress at the session of 1784 to have the Northwest Territory divided by parallels of latitude and meridian lines into ten States. They were to be named, beginning at the northwest corner and going south: Sylvania, Michigania, Chersonisus, Assenispia, Metropotamia, Illinoia, Saratoga, Washington, Plypotamia and Pelisipia.[2] Fortunately the people of the future great States of that region were spared the infliction of such inappropriate names as were some of these.
On the 7th of July, 1786, the subject was again considered by Congress, and a joint resolution adopted providing that not less than three, nor more than five States, should be organized out of the territory. On the 13th day of July, 1787, Congress passed an act known as the “Ordinance of 1787,” by which all of the country lying north and west of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi, was organized into the Northwest Territory. This embraced what has since become the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin. Seventeen million acres of land had been acquired by treaties with the various tribes of Indians. The ordinance providing for its organization had forever prohibited the introduction of slavery within its limits.[3]
Within a year from the time of its organization, more than 20,000 men, women and children had settled in the new territory. One thirty-sixth of all the public lands was reserved and the proceeds of the sales appropriated to the support of public schools. These two acts of Congress, viz.: the prohibition of slavery, and the grant of lands for public schools, were measures of the broadest statesmanship, which were destined to eventually work out the emancipation of our great republic from the crime and curse of human slavery and provide a comprehensive free public school system. Thus we see how from our eastern neighbors we inherited our simple system of land surveying, our method of providing a common school education and our exemption from African slavery.