History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North/Part 2/Chapter 7

by Frederik Winkel Horn

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CHAPTER VII.

NORWEGIAN LITERATURE SINCE 1814.

Unfavorable conditions for the foundation of an independent norwegian literature, and efforts to improve these conditions. Wergeland and Welhaven, their respective positions, their feuds and their significance. Munch, Asbjörnsen, Moe, Björnson, Ibsen, Lie and others. Contributions in the various departments of science.

AFTER Norway, in 1814, had been separated from Denmark and had obtained her own constitution, there sprang up a feeling of freedom and independence, and thus also a youthful desire of achieving great deeds without knowing exactly what to do. This sentiment of liberty assumed, however, such a preponderance that it strongly affected the domain of literature and particularly that of poetry. The national element in its purely abstract generality came so decidedly to the front that almost every other interest had to yield to it. "The rocks of Norway," particularly the Dovre mountains, "the cataracts of Norway," particularly the Sarpforce, "the lion of Norway," the "free, independent peasant," were for some the hackneyed phrases of the bombastic, rhetorical poetry, which was continually employed in glorifying Norway and its inhabitants. Such were the chords that were struck by the greater number, while a few others without being able to rise to any essential independence continued in the beaten track of the previous Danish-Norwegian literature. Now and then some writer, as for example Mauritz Chkistopher Hansen (1794-1842), in his rather bright stories, would try to approach the national element, but much progress in this direction was impossible, since the basis on which to found a national literature, that is an intimate knowledge of the popular life, was lacking. About the year 1830, however, the Norwegian nation began to work itself out of this transitional condition and to become conscious of the fact that there are higher aims and better ways by which to glorify one's country than by bestowing exaggerated praise even on its advantages. About this time Wergeland and Welhaven appeared as the representatives of the two important tendencies, from the collision of which the new literature was to proceed.^[1]

Henrik Wergeland was born in 1808. His father Nicolai Wergeland was a member of the constitutional convention, which assembled at Eidsvold, and he made an extraordinary sensation by his elequence which frequently soared to giddy heights, and by his unbridled, reckless enthusiasm for freedom. His intense patriotism found expression in various works, among which may be mentioned his pamphlet "Danmarks politiske Forbrydelser imod Norge," which, as indicated by the title, showed no mercy to Denmark. In the year 1817 Nicolai Wergeland became pastor at Eidsvold and here "on the sacred soil of Norwegian freedom" the lad Henrik grew up resembling his father in many respects and adopting his ideals, which were freedom, Norwegian sentiment, and reason. His special study was theology, but before he had completed his theological course, he wrote a few satirical farces under the signature "Siful Sifadda," a pseudonym which he afterward used when, as was frequently the case, he wished to vent his wrath in this kind of poetical compositions. He also published several exceedingly bombastic lyric poems, chiefly unrhymed odes. In the year 1830 appeared his lyric, dramatic poem, "Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias" (the Creation, Man and Messiah), a work of extraordinary length, though the author had produced it in about six months. It was a very obscure expression of the ideas that were fermenting in his mind, and at the same time it was a sort of glorification of the deism of the eighteenth century. It teemed with inelegant matter, but on the other hand it also contained many grand ideas and pictures of striking beauty, thus giving abundant evidence both of Wergeland's eminent talents and of his lack of intellectual maturity. He afterward revised this work, which he regarded as his masterpiece, but even in its altered form it is upon the whole chaotic and unattractive. The most prominent features of the first period of his literary activity are, generally speaking, a heaven-storming enthusiasm and a complete disregard of the laws of poetry. His mind is a seething, eddying chaos from whose dense mist flashes of grand ideas ever and anon dart forth. The great work above mentioned, accordingly found but few readers, nor did his other productions make any great impression, though they were hailed with great enthusiasm by a certain circle as the first point of a distinctly Norwegian literature. Still he was even in his first period a man of great influence, both on account of his marked personality and on account of his literary activity. Wergeland carried his love of freedom and country to the extreme and partook with his whole soul in the national movement, which without being able to produce any practical results, blindly waged war against all existing institutions, against the bureaucracy and, in short, against everything that pretended to be of Danish origin. He was a friend of the common people and promoted their welfare to the best of his ability. He watched jealously over the independence of Norway, and by his agitations he brought about that the 17th of May, the anniversary of the adoption of the Norwegian constitution, was raised to a national holiday of the Norwegian nation, in other words, he was the leader of the ultra-Norwegian party. Thus when the contest broke out between himself and Welhaven, the war was not limited to the domain of æsthetics, but it was based mainly on the wide difference between the contending parties in regard to all social relations and in regard to the principles which the development of culture in Norway ought to follow. The ultra-Norwegian party adopted the absolutely national principle, while its opponents, the so-called "Intelligence" maintained that art and culture should be developed on the basis of the old association, which had been formed during the long union between Norway and Denmark, and by which Norway had become connected with the great movements of civilization throughout Europe. The leader of the latter party was Welhaven.

Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven was born in 1807. His refined æsthetic nature had been early developed, and when the war broke out between him and Wergeland he had already reached a high point of intellectual culture, and thus he was in every way a match to his opponent. The fight was inaugurated by a preliminary literary skirmish, which was at the outset limited to the university students, but it gradually assumed an increasingly bitter character, both parties growing more and more exasperated. Welhaven published a pamphlet "Om Henrik Wergelands Digtekunst og Poesie" in which he mercilessly exposed the weak sides of his adversary's poetry. Thereby the minds became still more excited. The "Intelligence" party withdrew from the students' union, founded a paper of their own, and thus the movement began to assume wider dimensions. In 1834 appeared Welhaven's celebrated poem "Norges Dæmring," a series of sonnets, distinguished for their beauty of style. In them the poet scourges without mercy the one-sided, narrow-minded patriotism of his time and exposes in striking and unmistakable words the hollowness and shortcomings of the Wergeland party. Welhaven points out with emphasis that he is not only going to espouse the cause of good taste, which his adversary has outraged, but that he is also about to discuss problems of great interest. He urges that a Norwegian culture and literature cannot be created out of nothing; that to promote their development it is absolutely necessary to continue the associations which have hitherto been common to both Norway and Denmark, and thus to keep in rapport with the general literature of Europe. When a solid foundation has in this manner been laid, the necessary materials for a literature would surely not be wanting, for they are found in abundance, both in the antiquities and in the popular life of Norway. This poem made the greatest possible sensation. The "Intelligence" party very naturally found in it a clear incontrovertible expression of the principles which in their opinion ought to be the basis of a worthy intellectual development. But Wergeland's party were highly incensed and could scarcely find sufficiently strong terms in which to denounce this "document of treason." There broke out a violent literary feud in which Welhaven, however, took no part. But his forcible words, welling forth from a deep inner conviction, continued to have a decided influence on the intellectual progress of the young Norway, and they contributed much to the revival of the people's self-consciousness and to impelling the Norwegians to employ their intellectual powers instead of being satisfied with empty phrases.

The contest with Welhaven was not the only one in which Wergeland had to engage, though his other conflicts were not of equal importance to the people of Norway and to literature. His excitable, reckless character involved him in a number of lawsuits which finally cost him the loss of house and home. Nor were scandalous scenes in public places wanting. Thus at the representation of Wergeland's drama, "The Campbells," there took place in the theatre a regular tussle (the famous Campbell fight) between the friends and adversaries of Wergeland in his own presence. His whole personality was of a kind that makes it easy to understand why even many intelligent men (in spite of his noble character, always intent on the ideal) misunderstood and hated him. Such was the case in the Jewish question, in which he applied the general principles of freedom in favor of an oppressed, persecuted race that was prohibited from settling in Norway. Wergeland espoused their cause with voice and pen, especially in his two interesting compositions, "Jöden" and "Jödinden." He was still more blamed for another philanthropic freak. Out of compassion for a poor printer he anonymously undertook the editorship of a few numbers of a very low journal called "Statsborgeren," until a new editor could be found; but when he was discovered and a general outburst of indignation followed, he added fuel to the flames by resolving to retain the paper and turn it into a decent organ of the opposition, a resolution which he, however, failed to realize. His relations to King Carl Johan were also a fruitful source of ill-will and gross misunderstanding, though he here, too, was as pure and innocent as in the other instances described. Wergeland was sincerely devoted to the king, and did not therefore hesitate to accept the support which was granted to him by his majesty, but on the other hand he was not afraid of speaking the truth boldly to the king's face, when the latter, in Wergeland's estimation, was unfaithful to his trust as guardian and defender of Norwegian liberty. But Wergeland had a peculiar knack for putting all his acts in such a light that it was exceedingly difficult not to misinterpret them.

All these conflicts did not, however, hinder him from developing a vast literary activity. Farces, plays, epic and lyric poems followed in quick succession, and his work steadily improved in character and style. Many of the poems, dating from his ripe age, have a beauty and clearness which it would be vain to look for in his earlier works, while the deep, intense feeling and the gorgeous imagery, which characterize the earlier poems, are also found in his later ones, and that in a purer and nobler form. Among his most excellent productions are "Jan van Huysums Blomsterstykke," "Jöden" and "Den engelske Lods." Among his lyric poems there is also to be found many a gem. When he died in 1845, it was generally acknowledged that Wergeland had been a great man, endowed with a rare poetical talent, nay, that he might have become the greatest man that the North ever produced had it not been his lot to be engaged on all sides in the most violent controversies with his contemporaries, which, of course, prevented him from attaining his full development. ^[2]

Welhaven maintained throughout his long career as an author and university professor the principles which he had advocated in his conflicts with Wergeland. His special department was philosophy, but he also delivered lectures on the history of literature, which were well attended. He wrote several essays on subjects from the Danish-Norwegian literature, notably on Ewald and the Norwegian poets, and this was the first conspicuous attempt to throw light on this important subject. The number of his poems is not very large. They are mostly lyrics, and they are to such a degree finished in style and rich in contents, that they have never been surpassed in Norway. His poetry is mostly of a symbolic character, whether he plunges into the contemplation of nature, which he is particularly fond of doing, or selects a myth or legend as the basis of his poem. Human life is almost always reflected in his poetry. In his romances he followed the way he had himself pointed out, and took his materials from ancient and modern time and from popular traditions, and in so doing he gave a mighty impulse to Norwegian literature. He died in 1873.^[3]

Andreas Munch (born 1811) may in many respects be regarded as a spiritual kinsman of Welhaven, though he is not as original as the latter. His poetry is a very graceful and pure though somewhat faint echo of Oehlenschläger's, and this is particularly true of his dramatical works, "Lord William Russell," "Salomon de Caus," "En Aften paa Giske," etc., all of which suffer from the same defects as Oehlenschläger's dramas without even distantly approaching them in poetical power. His tales are more characteristic, the many-hued materials for which he frequently borrows from Norway's mediæval history, as for instance in "Pigen fra Norge." As a lyrical poet he has also done good work. He is tender and melodious, and generally understands the art of giving his verses an elegant and attractive form. The best of his poetical works is his "Sorg og Tröst" (Sorrow and Consolation), a collection written on the occasion of the death of his beloved wife, and which was received with the highest favor, not only in Norway, but also in both the other Scandinavian countries. His cycle of romances, "Kongedatterns Brudefart" (The bridal tour of the princess), is also an exceedingly fine work.^[4]

The energetic efforts which began to be manifested about the year 1830 in the study of the characteristic peculiarities of the Norwegian people served as an important aid to the intellectual development on the basis of natural elements in the sense in which Welhaven and his friends had suggested. The knowledge of the life and habits of thought, of the nature of the country, etc., had hitherto been very superficial. What was known did not extend beyond the limits of the most ordinary things, and was not sufficient to serve as the basis of a truly national literature which was to have its roots in the life of the nation, and to reflect the character of the people. A beginning was now made in the way of collecting the materials and in publishing them in a systematic form. Not only was a new and brighter light shed on a multitude of things through the researches of historians and scientists, but entirely new fields, which had hitherto remained neglected, were made the object of comprehensive inquiries that yielded rich harvests.

In this direction much was done by Peter Christian Asbjörnsen (born 1812) who, partly alone and partly in connection with the bishop, Jörgen Moe (1813-1880), collected old popular tales which were admirably adapted for the poetical literature. Literature thus acquired an abundance of fresh materials, and the peculiarities of the Norwegian character were brought out into bold relief. Both these men were exceptionally fitted for the task of collecting and recasting these poetical productions of the popular mind of Norway, for they both possessed in a remarkable degree the art of coaxing from the common man his jealously guarded treasures of popular poetry. No less admirable was their talent for retelling what they obtained in such a manner that nothing was lost of the original either in substance or in style. This they were able to do because they were thoroughly familiar with the life and habits of the peasants, and in addition to this they were endowed with no mean poetical talent which they employed with consummate skill, for they checked it whenever there was any danger that it might be detrimental to the pure original form of the popular tales, or to the peculiar stamp which the people had given them. In the "Norske Huldreæventyr og Folkesagn," which Asbjörnsen has edited, giving the names of the persons by whom the tales have been told, he has inserted descriptions in which are found a series of striking pictures of the natural scenery and of the popular life of Norway. Moe has written a number of graceful and attractive poems, among which the earlier ones are especially charming. In them he extols the beauties of nature, while in his later poems, which are strongly pervaded by a religious element, he also frequently turns to nature to borrow from her symbolic expressions for his thoughts upon the loftiest themes. In his later works we also find numerous exquisite passages.^[5]

Many other writers have furnished excellent descriptions of nature and sketches of popular life, which are no less remarkable for their simple and attractive style than for their charming realism. Among the most important of these, which by the way may be regarded as the forerunners of that national poetry which has reached its climax in Björnson's stories, are Hans Henrik Schulze's "Fra Lofoten og Solör," Nicolai Östgaard's "En Fjeldbygd," and Bernhard Heere's small, yet spirited work, "En Jægers Erindringer." Harold Meltzer has produced most humorous and strikingly truthful sketches of the life of the lower classes in Christiania. Magnus Brostrup Landstad (1802-1880), and the excellent linguist Sophus Elseus Bugge (born 1833) have made valuable collections of popular ballads, of which the Thelemark region seems to yield the most abundant harvest.^[6]

These efforts to penetrate to the very heart of the national life and to preserve it in its primitive purity, led to the so-called "Maalstræv," that is, an attempt to found a written language on the basis of the various popular dialects, "Landsmaalet" (the country vernacular), and to substitute it for the Danish-Norwegian language. It had its origin in that exclusive Norwegian tendency of the Wergeland party, and aided by the work of excellent philologists, especially by that of the distinguished Ivar Aasen (born 1813), it has brought to light a vast amount of linguistic treasures, which otherwise would have remained wholly neglected. Herein lies the great significance of these efforts, while their real aim, the creation of a new language out of the dialects, is, as a matter of course, an unattainable one. The "Maalstræver" school has produced a few poets, among whom Aasmund Olafsson Vinje (1818-1870) is the most remarkable. From him we have a number of beautiful lyric poems, and an epic "Storegut," written in the "Landsmaal." Another author of considerable merit, though far less original than Vinje, is Christofer Janson, who has written a number of stories, dramas and lyric poems.^[7]

The two greatest poets that Norway has produced, and at the same time the two greatest poets now living in all Scandinavia are Björnson and Ibsen. Björnstjerne Björnson (born 1832) suddenly became very popular by his first novel "Synnöve Solbakken," for it was no less distinguished for its clear insight into the knowledge of the peasant life in Norway than for its remarkably charming and poetical style. This fresh and graceful tale was followed by a number of similar poetical descriptions from the life of the Norwegian peasants "Arne," "En glad Gut," "Fiskerjenten," "Brudeslaatten" and several short stories, all of which possess the same excellences as the book with which this highly gifted author began his literary career, though none of them are equal to Synnöve Solbakken in artistic finish. Already in "The Fishermaiden," Björnson began to describe the life of the middle classes, and his "Magnhild" he moves wholly in the latter sphere, in which he is far less skilful. In his peasant stories—notwithstanding his condensed style, which reminds us of the old sagas—his delineations are remarkably suggestive and characteristic.

As a dramatist Björnson does not rank as high as he does as a novelist, though he has also achieved excellent results in this field. For his dramas he takes his materials partly from the sagas, as in "Sigurd Slembe," and in "Mellem Slagene," partly from modern history, as in "Maria Stuart," and partly from modern life, as in "De Nygifte," "En Fallit " and "Leonarda." In the later years politics, which have prominently engaged his attention, have also colored his dramatic compositions. In his plays "Redaktören" and "Kongen," he has given vent to his political and social ideas, a fact which has by no means been advantageous to the poetical value of these works, though they contain many passages of great beauty.^[8] Björnson's dramas are, generally speaking, marked by excellent delineations of character and by a brilliant diction, while they are frequently lacking in the elaboration of the plot. In a purely artistic sense the drama "Mellem Slagene," a slight, but very effective picture of life in the middle ages, from the stirring times of King Sverre, is probably the best of all. Björnson has written a number of lyric poems of rare beauty, and his epic cycle "Arnljot Gelline" though somewhat discursive, is a most exquisite work.^[9]

While Björnson's poetical development, properly speaking, had already reached its climax when his first works appeared, and while none of his later great works have surpassed his first ones in excellence, the merit of the works of Henrik Ibsen (born 1828) has constantly been increasing. He is above all a dramatist, though he has written many lyric poems of exquisite beauty. His first works were historical romantic dramas, which must be looked upon as preliminary studies, though many of them contain passages that are prophetic of the great poetical talent which he was destined to display in so splendid a manner. To this portion of his works belong the dramas "Gildet paa Solhoug " (The banquet at Solhoug), in which the influence of Hertz' play "Svend Dyring's Hus," is very perceptible, "Fru Inger til Östraat," and "Hærmaendene paa Helgeland" (The warriors of Helgeland), a dramatic treatment of the myth of Sigurd and Brynhild, transferred to historical times, with a remarkably correct historical coloring. In this style of composition he reached the climax in the excellent historical drama "Köngsemnerne" (The Pretenders), in which the poet for the first time developed his whole power. Here the author has in King Hakon, who relies on his right and constantly holds fast to his "royal idea" of consolidating the Norwegian people, and in Duke Shule, who is lacking in self reliance, drawn two pictures that are executed with great psychological finish, and that in their reciprocal contrast produce a striking poetical effect. The exquisitely drawn secondary figures contribute their share to the perfection of the grand historical picture which is here presented to our view.

Before this play was published he had already entered a new field in his drama "Kjærlighedens Komedie" (Comedy of Love), namely that of the satirical and philosophical drama, to which his genius seems particularly fitted, and in which he, with scathing derision, yet with deep earnestness discusses the social questions of the day. Both his most important works "Brand" and "Peer Gynt," which are equally remarkable for their wealth of thought and for their masterly style, belong to this negative tendency in his work. These three comprehensive dramatical works are written in the most perfect ringing and characteristic verses, while "De Unges Forbund" and "Samfundets Stötter," and all his later works, are written in prose. In both the last named plays the poet pours his vials of satire upon his own times and country, putting hollowness and falsehood in the pillory with an amount of indignation, which by its very vehemence somewhat injures the poetical effect, though it is never devoid of humor. In the historical play, "Keiser og Gallilæer," Ibsen has once more returned to his earlier tendency and produced a work which in many of its passages shows that his dramatic powers have in no wise waned. This may safely be asserted in spite of all the objections that have been made from different points of view against this profound and comprehensive drama.^[10]

In the field of elegant literature the following authors and authoresses are yet to be mentioned: Jacobine Camilla Collet, Henrik Wergeland's sister (born 1813), is a writer whose stories and sketches, especially her interesting novel from real life, "Amtmandens Döttre," abound in original spirited thoughts, and are characterized by an elegant style, though a conspicuous tendency to criticise would seem to mar the poetic beauty of her works. In her book, "I de lange Nætter" (During the long nights), she describes in a frank and pleasing manner her childhood in the house of her parents, and then she gives various episodes from her later life, which explain how her intellectual development came to assume a direction which made her the most zealous and energetic champion of woman's emancipation in the whole North. In all her works, but particularly in "Erindringer og Bekjendelser" (Recollections and Confessions), and in "Fra de Stummes Leir" (From the camp of the mute), are found grand arguments in favor of woman's social rights, though they at times indicate a total ignorance of the actually existing state of things.^[11]

Jonas Lie (born 1833) has produced in the form of novels several sketches of nature and popular life from the north of Norway, among which are "Den Fremsynte," "Tremasteren Fremtiden," and "Lodsen og hans Hustru." His style is somewhat heavy, but the sketches taken separately are so fresh and vivid, and filled with so much poetical fragrance, and contain, moreover, so many fine psychological observations, that the reader easily forgets the technical shortcomings. Instead of describing the sailor's life as in the most of his former works, he has, in "Thomas Ross," confined himself to city life, and from a technical standpoint of view, this story makes a decided progress. On the contrary, his lyric, dramatic composition, "Faustina Strozzi," with its scene laid in Italy, must be regarded as less successful. In his chief works, Lie not unfrequently reminds us of Björnson's style.^[12] The same applies to Anna Magdalena Thoresen (born 1819), who, though born in Denmark, limits herself in her tales almost exclusively to descriptions from nature and popular life in Norway. Of her works, which betray a certain mannerism, but still contain no small amount of poetic beauty, the most prominent are: "Signes Historie," "Solen i Siljedalen," and "Billeder fra Vestkysten."

Marie Colban, whose tales (especially "Jeg Lever") reveal a rare talent for character-painting and graphic descriptions, is a marked exception from the general tendency in Norwegian literature, which is especially fond of dealing with the national popular life, while this lady endeavors to bring the national literature into harmony with foreign, particularly French elements.^[13]

The rich poetic life which has unfolded itself with increasing vigor in Norway during the last decades is still in full bloom. New talents are continually being added which justify the highest expectations, and there is a luxuriance in the art of poetry to which a parallel can scarcely be found in any other country. But Norway has also achieved great things in other fields. A most distinguished naturalist was Christopher Hansteen (1784—1873), whose investigations concerning the earth's magnetism have carried his name far beyond the borders of his own country. He also did much for the advancement of the mathematical sciences. Sjurd Aamundsen Sexe (born 1805), Michael Sars (1805-69), Mathias Numsen Blytt (1789-1862), have all achieved splendid results in various departments of natural science. Of important writers on philosophy Norway can only boast Niels Treschow (1751-1833), and Maecus Monrad (born 1816), of whom the latter belongs to Hegel's school, and whose numerous works in various branches of philosophy have by their clear and logical method given considerable impulse to accurate thought. The most prominent theologians of the old school are Stener Johan Steneesen (1789-1838), and Wilhelm Andreas Wexels (1797-1866), while the modern tendency is represented by Cael Poul Caspaei (born 1814). Caspari was born in Anhalt Dessau, is of Jew- ish extraction, and was baptized in 1838. In 1848 he was appointed professor in Christiania, and has since acquired a European reputation by his brilliant and scholarly literary works.

Eilert Sundt (1817-1875) occupies a peculiar position in Norwegian literature. The results of his researches in regard to a great number of social and economical questions—in regard to the "Fante Folk" (a kind of Norwegian gypsies), in regard to the habits and position of the working classes, in regard to public morality, etc., etc,—he has embodied in a series of works, which are chiefly statistic in their character, but the statistics are used in an unusually entertaining manner. He was one of the most zealous members of the society for popular education, and edited for many years the Norwegian periodical "Folkevennen," published by the Society for the advancement of popular education, and in this journal he wrote many valuable articles.^[14]

But of all the branches of science none has been cultivated with greater ardor and success than that of history, and Peter Andreas Munch (1810-1863), and Rudolph Keyser (1803-1864), have especially done much toward laying a solid foundation for the study of history, by their numerous works, which abound in valuable materials. Both published a history of Norway. Munch's work, though extending only to the Calmar Union, comprises eight stout volumes. Keyser also wrote a history of Norwegian literature in the middle ages, and a special essay on the origin and descent of the Norwegians, in which he was the first to give utterance to the Norwegian theory peculiar to the Keyser-Munch historical school in regard to the early settlement of the North. This theory, which met with considerable opposition in various quarters and also in Norway, and which must now be regarded as exploded, was advocated with great partiality, but it led to researches which have contributed much to the elucidation of important questions. A very valuable work by Rudolph Keyser is also his "Den norske Kirkes Historie under Katholicismen." Both these historians have, moreover, written very profound and scholarly dissertations on various subjects relating to the history and culture of antiquity. After them Johan Ernst Sars (born 1835) is the most distinguished historian of Norway. He is particularly noted for his careful researches into obscure points in Norwegian history. His works in general, and especially his "Udsigt over Norges Historie" are marked by a profound and thorough knowledge of his subject, and by a rare elegance of style.^[15]

Munch and Keyser have also done much in the way of editing old Norwegian and Icelandic works, especially such as are of immediate importance to Norwegian history, and in this branch of their activity they have found an able successor in Carl Richard Unger (born 1817). Purely linguistic investigations were also ardently pursued by Munch, and his work in this direction has been continued by Johan Fritzner (born 1812), who has published an excellent Old Norse dictionary, and by Sophus Bugge. The latter has by his investigations of the runic monuments of the North, and by his critical editions of the Elder Edda, furnished with a learned apparatus of notes and commentaries, greatly aided a correct appreciation of both.^[16]

In the above review we have been able to give only the most important names from the history of modern Norwegian literature; still what we have said may suffice to show how vigorous the activity is in every direction. Many valuable works have already been produced and these give promise of an abundant harvest in the future. Like every other intellectual movement this literary renaissance too struggled forth into existence through much fermentation and strife. The conflicts have not yet ended, but there is every reason to hope that sound energies, fitted to promote a healthy popular life, will ultimately gain the upper hand.

1. H. Jæger: Literaturhistoriske Pennetegninger, Copenhagen, 1878. M. C. Hausens Noveller og Fortællinger, I-VIII, Christiania, 1855-1858.
2. H. Wergelands samlede Skrifter, edited by H. Lassen, I-IX, Christiania, 1852-57. H. Lassen: Henrik Wergeland og hans Samtid, Christiania, 1866. H. Schwanenflügel: Henrik Wergeland, Copenhagen, 1877.
3. J. S. Welhavens samlede skrifter, Copenhagen, 1867-68.
4. A. Munch: Samlede Digte, Trondhjem, 1858. Nyeste Digte, Christiania, 1861. Sorg og Tröst, Christiania, 1852. Kongedatterens Brudefart, Christiania, 1861. Salomon de Caus, Christiania, 1855. En Aften paa Giske, Christiania, 1855. Lord William Russell, Christiania, 1857. Hertug Skule, Copenhagen, 1854.
5. P. Chr. Asbjornsen: Norske Huldre-Eventyr og Folkesagn, I-II, Christiania, 1845-48. J. Moe: Samlede Skrifter, I-II, Christiania, 1877. Asbjörnsen og Moe: Norske Folke-Eventyr, Christiania, 1841.
6. H. Schulze: Fra Lofoten og Solör, Christiania, 1866. N. R. Östgaard: En Fjeldbygd, Christiania, 1862. B. Herre: En Jægers Erindringer, Christiania, 1864. H. Meltzer: Smaabilleder af Folkelivet, I-II, Christiania, 1862. M. B. Landstad: Norske Folkeviser, Christiania, 1853. S. Bugge: Gamle norske Folkeviser, Christiania, 1858.
7. A. O. Vinje: Digtsamling, Christiania, 1864. Storegut, Christiania, 1866. C. Janson, Norske Digte, Bergen, 1867. Fraa Bygdom, Bergen, 1867. "Den Bergtekne" (The Spell bound Fiddler) has been translated into English by Auber Forestier, and published by S. C. Griggs & Co., Chicago.
8. All of Björnson's stories have recently appeared in seven volumes, in Boston (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.), in an English translation by R. B. Anderson. From a biographical sketch of Björnson prefaced to Synnöve Solbakken in this series, it will be seen that the translator is materially at variance with Winkel Horn in his estimate of Björnson's literary merits, particularly in regard to the dramas.
9. B. Björnson: Fortællinger, I-II, Copenhagen, 1872. Magnbild, Copennagen, 1877. Kaptain Mansana, Copenhagen, 1879. Dramas: Halte-Hulda, Bergen, 1868. Mellem Slagene, Copenhagen, 1862. Maria Stuart i Skotland, Copenhagen, 1864. De Nygifte, Copenhagen, 1865. Sigurd Josalfar, Copenhagen, 1872. En Fallit, Copenhagen, 1875. Redaktören, Copenhagen, 1875. Kongen, Copenhagen, 1877. Leonarda, Copenhagen, 1879. Det ny System, Copenhagen, 1879. Poems: Digte og Sange, Copenhagen, 1870. Arnljot Gelline, Copenhagen, 1870.
10. H. Ibsen: Catilina, (2nd ed.), Copenhagen, 1875, Gildet paa Solhoug, Christiania, 1856. Fru Inger til Östraat, 2nd ed., Copenhagen, 1874. Hærmændene paa Helgeland, Christiania, 1858. Kjærlighedens Komedie, Christiania, 1867. Köngsemnerne, Christiania, 1864. Digte, Copenhagen, 1871. Brand, Copenhagen, 1866. Peer Gynt, Copenhagen, 1867. De Unges Forbund, Copenhagen, 1877. Since then, Dukkehjemmet, Gjengangere, and En Folkefiende.
11. J. C. Collet: Amtmandens Dottre, Christiania, 1855. Fortællinger, Christiania, 1861. I de lange Nætter, Christiania, 1863. Sidste Blade, 1-5 (3 vols.), Christiania. Fra de Stummes Leir, Christiania, 1877.
12. J. Lie: Den Fremsynte, Copenhagen, 1870. Fortællinger og Skildringer fra Norge, Copenhagen, 1872. Tremasteren Fremtiden, Copenhagen, 1872. Lodsen og hans Hustru, Copenhagen, 1874. Thomas Ross, Copenhagen, 1878. Adam Schrader, Copenhagen, 1879, Faustina Strozzi, Copenhagen, 1875. Grabows Kat, Copenhagen, 1880. Rutland, Copenhagen, 1881. Gaa Paa, Copenhagen, 1882. Lodsen og hans Hustru and Tremasteren Fremtiden are translated into English by Mrs. Bull, and published by S. C. Griggs & Co., Chicago.
13. Magdalena Thoresen: Fortællinger, Copenhagen, 1863. Signes Historie, Copenhagen, 1864. Solen i Siljedalen, Copenhagen, 1868. Billeder fra Vestkysten af Norge, Copenhagen, 1872. Nyere Fortællinger, Copenhagen, 1873. Livsbilleder, Copenhagen, 1877. Herluf Nordal, Copenhagen, 1879. Marie Colban: Tre Noveller, Cristiania. Tre nye Noveller, Copenhagen, 1875. Jeg Lever, Copenhagen, 1877. En Gammel Jomfru, Copenhagen, 1879.
14. C. Hansteen: Untersuchungen über den Magnetismus der Erde, Christiania, 1819. Reiseerindringer, Christiania, 1859. S. A. Sexe: Om Snebræen Folgefon, Christiania, 1864. Mærker efter en Istid i Omegnen af Hardaugerfjorden, Christiania, 1866. M. Sars: Om de i Norge forekommende fossile Dyrelevninger fra Kvartserperioden, Christiania, 1865. M. N. Blytt: Norges Flora, Christiania, 1861. N. Treschow: Om Gud, Idee og Sandseverdenen samt de förstes Aabenbarelse i de sidste, I-III, Christiania, 1831-1832. M. J. Monrad: Tolv Forelæsninger over det Skjönne, Christiania, 1859. St. J. Stenersen: Den Kristne Kirkes Historie, I-II, 1823. E. Sundt: Beretning om Fantefolket i Norge, Christiania, 1850-1865. Om Bygningskikken paa Landet, Christiania, 1862. Om Giftermaal i Norge, Christiania, 1855. Om Dödeligheden i Norge, Christiania, 1855.
15. P. A. Munch: Det norske Folks Historie, I-VIII, Christiania, 1852-1863. Samlede Afhandlinger, I-IV, Christiania, 1873-1876. K. Keyser: Norges Historie, I-II, Christiania, 1866-1867. Den norske Kirkes Historie under Katholicismen, I-II, Christiania, 1856-1858. Efterladte Afhandlinger, I-II, Christiania, 1866-1867. Samlede Afhandlinger, Christiania, 1868. J. E. Sars: Udsigt over den norske Historie, Christiania, 1873-1877.
16. Fritzner: Ordbog over det gamle norske Sprog, Christiania, 1867.