History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North/Part 3/Chapter 3
CHAPTER III.
THE STJERNHJELM PERIOD (1640-1740).
THE seventeenth century was in all respects the great age of Sweden. A line of kings, the like of which scarcely any other country can boast, extended the boundaries of the country by successful wars, and promoted the development of Sweden's natural resources with great wisdom. It is true the country could not maintain itself in the eminence to which it had been raised, for its resources had been too severely taxed by the long and frequent wars, and they were not sufficient to make Sweden one of the great European powers permanently. But the proud consciousness of power, that all these great deeds had aroused among the people, gave the impulse to a greater activity in every direction, and thus also in literature. In the intellectual field it was, however, in many respects only the seed that was planted, and the ripening of the fruit was reserved for a later time. All the Swedish Kings of the seventeenth century, but especially Gustav Adolph and Karl XII, took a deep and lively interest in the arts and sciences. The former founded schools and colleges, and at a great sacrifice of his private fortune he infused a new life into the Upsala University, which had fallen into decay during the agitations of the Reformation period, but which now rose again to great importance. The regency during the minority of Karl XI founded in 1668 the University of Lund, and the king himself established several scientific institutions. At the instigation of Queen Christina a number of foreign scholars were invited to the country, such as Cartesius, Hugo Grotius, Loccenius and others. The nobility also distinguished themselves in the sciences and counted many eminent and learned men in their ranks. In brief the intellectual industry corresponded well to the position which Sweden occupied in other respects during this century.
Georg Stjernhjelm, the father of Swedish poetry, was the central figure of the intellectual life during this epoch. He was born in 1598, and was the son of a poor miner in Dalarne. At an early age he distinguished himself by his talents and application, and after completing his education during a protracted sojourn abroad Gustav Adolph appointed him a lecturer in the Vesterås college, where he had received his elementary training. But his extensive knowledge soon opened to him a wider field of activity in various eminent positions. Gustav Adolph raised him to the peerage, on which occasion he abandoned the name Göran Lilje, which he had inherited from the noble family of his great grandmother, and he now assumed the name which he rendered so famous. For some time he was the court poet of Queen Christina, and as such enjoyed great favor, but he fell into disgrace on the well-founded suspicion that he belonged to the opposition. This did not, however, diminish his great reputation among the people, by whom he was regarded as Sweden's first poet, as one of her great scholars, and as the leader in intellectual circles, but still he died poor in the year 1672.
Stjernhjelm was a splendid example of the humane culture of his time. As linguist, historian, scientist, jurist, mathematician and philosopher he was equally distinguished, and in several of these branches he broke entirely new ground. But he attained the highest rank as a poet. In the history of Swedish poetry he occupies the same place as Martin Opitz in Germany, being the first to apply the new principles growing out of the renaissance. These he adapted to the character of the Swedish language and people, and thus he laid the foundation of a really artistic poetic literature. "It must be admitted," says Atterbom, "that his works evince, to a higher degree than he was himself conscious, un-Swedish, especially German, associations, but at the same time they show a view of life, a vigor of intellect, a style and character, in which the antique and Swedish elements are blended in harmony and beauty." He possessed abundantly all the conditions required for the solution of the problem of the age, which consisted in creating for Sweden a poetry on the basis of the culture which the humanistic movement had produced, and which had taken its principal nourishment from the old classical literature. For he was not only himself thoroughly imbued with this culture, but he was also the true poet, intimately familiar with the popular life and natural scenery of his country. In his poems he knew how to strike a chord, which by its national and homely ring was intelligible to all, and which at once secured him a generous recognition. His language is marked by great purity, and his poems reveal the perfect master of style. They may seem discursive and insipid to us, but still they are pervaded by a peculiarly fresh breath of life, and it is not difficult to understand why they enjoyed the unqualified admiration of the poet's own generation, and were for a long time regarded as unsurpassed models of perfection. This particularly applies to his epic-didactic poem, written in hexameters, "Hercules," in which "Lady Pleasure" and "Lady Virtue" vie with each other in enticing the hero to their side. There is no lack of allusions to the noblemen of Queen Christina's court, and this fact must have furnished an added charm for the readers of that period. Another poem also written in hexameters, "Bröllopsbesvärs ihugkommelse" (Recollections of wedding vexations), is more in harmony with the taste of our own time. It is the first of those humorous, lyric compositions, which are peculiar to the literature of Sweden and which constitute one of its chief ornaments. For the court festivals of Queen Christina he wrote several ballets and "processions," of which "then fångne Cupido " is the most successful. Stjernhjelm employed several poetic metres that had hitherto been unknown in Sweden, but which soon became generally adopted, as for instance the Alexandrines.[1]
The results of Stjernhjelm's poetical activity may be summed up by stating that the language, which up to that time had been hard and unmanageable, by his pen received a form more adapted to poetry, and received certain impulses that led to a still richer development; that new forms of versification were introduced and that poetry in general received a definite direction. It scarcely needs to be mentioned that Stjernhjelm adopted foreign models, for his great classical learning naturally led him into this course, which was at that time common throughout Europe, but his marked originality made him far more independent than were the most of his contemporaries. Among his successors none were his equals. They were for the, most part imitators and insipid rhymesters, though it must be admitted that they aided in giving the language more scope and harmony. The most notable among his followers were Samuel Columbus (1642-79), who on account of his odes was surnamed the "Swedish Flaccus," and Peter Lägerlöf (died 1699), whose erotic song, "Elisandra," continued for a long time to be the object of admiration and imitation.
By the side of this tendency of which Stjernhjelm and his pupils were the representatives, and which was based on the classical literature, there sprang up another, which may be called the romantic school, and which assumed the role of combating the formality of the other. The latter took its models from Italy, and was also greatly influenced by the Lohenstein school of Germany. One of the most distinguished representatives of this tendency was Gustav Rosenhane (1619-84), who, however, scarcely rose above mere formality. His chief merit consisted in a skilful adaptation of foreign poetry to the Swedish language, as an example of which we may mention his "Venerid," a poem in one hundred sonnets. In his other poems he also made somewhat successful efforts to force the stiff Swedish tongue into the more artistic forms of foreign languages, especially in "Thet svenska språketz klagemål att thet, som sigh borde, ikke ähret blifver" (The complaint of the Swedish language that it does not receive the honor it deserves), which is remarkable for its warm appreciation of the native vernacular. But his poems do not, upon the whole, show much poetical genius.
Gunno Eurrlius Dahlstjerna (1661—1709) was on the other hand a genuine poet, who, doubtless, would have achieved something of success, had not the Italian Marinists and the second Silesian school exercised a noxious influence on him, and seduced him into an affected, bombastic style, from which his natural feeling in its warmth and simplicity only now and then is able to emancipate itself. His chief work is his poem, "Kungaskald," written in octave rhymes with Alexandrines, a metre used for the first time in Sweden by Dahlstjerna. The poem is pervaded by a warm patriotic sentiment and a proud enthusiasm over the greatness to which Sweden had risen, and abounds in beautiful passages. This composition is, however, upon the whole surpassed by his "Götha Kämpevisa om Konungen och Hr. Peder" (The Swedish heroic song about the king, Charles XII, and Sir Peter, the Czar), which long lived on the lips of the people, and faithfully reproduced the spirit and style of the popular ballad. Christopher Lejoncrona (about 1650-1710), the author of several erotic and elegiac poems, is said to have died from grief on account of the defeat at Pultowa. His most important work is the "Correspondence between Harbor and Signill." Carl Gripenhjelm (died 1694) became known by his erotic songs and dirges, and Torsten Rudén (1661-1729) is celebrated for his songs breathing joy and happiness.[2]
These poets were partly imitators of Stjernhjelm, and were partly influenced by the Marinists and their followers in Germany. But there were also a few who occupied more independent positions. Lasse Lucidor, surnamed the Unfortunate (about 1640-1674), was a man of great talent and vast knowledge, particularly of languages. Already as a youth he wrote poems in seven different languages. But he early fell into bad ways and led a sad life in Stockholm, eking out a living by composing wedding songs and funeral hymns, until he at length happened to be killed in a pot- house quarrel. Many of his poems, which were published after his death with the title, "Helicons Blomster," are coarse and insipid, while some of his religious songs evince a deep and truly poetic feeling. His poems generally breathe that sadness which is characteristic of Swedish poetry, and which in Bellmann, the greatest of Swedish poets, appears combined with the humorous element, which is also one of the main characteristics of this poetry. The humorous element is especially represented in Israel Holmström (1660- 1708), a merry, cheerful singer, who has often been called Bellmann's predecessor, and who in some of his light, jovial songs struck chords that remind us of Bellmann's sparkling humor. But neither Holmström nor Lucidor can really be compared with Bellmann.
Sweden's first satirist was Samuel Triewald (1688-1743), who, from choice and with great success, vented his scathing, though not very poetical humor against the insipid festive songs which were then in vogue. His model was Boileau, who was very popular in Sweden, and people found Triewald's imitations so clever that they surnamed him the "Swedish Boileau."
The Finlander, Jacob Frese (1691-1729), deserves special mention. He was a man of genuine poetical talent, and one of the few during this period whose poetry has something more than mere historical value. In his works is found little or nothing of that artificial and highly strained mannerism, which prevailed in the poetry of that period, while in respect to form he is second to none. His natural, simple erotic and elegiac songs received but little attention from his contemporaries, other qualities being then demanded of the poet, and he was accordingly soon forgotten. But he has since been rescued from his oblivion, and valued according to his merits. His religious poems rank the highest, being equally attractive for their elegant form, and for the warm and genuine sentiment which pervades them.
Besides these there were also a number of others who were considered by their contemporaries as genuine poets, and whose works were received with great favor, while they were in fact mere rhymesters. Among them are Johan Runius (1679-1713), and the learned lady, Sofia Elizabeth Brenner (1659-1730), the latter of whom also wrote verses in foreign languages. Others again had more or less poetic talent, but, like the former, were unable to produce other than mere amateur work. According to the opinion shared by all the poets, almost without exception, poetry was only a pleasant pastime, a fact openly expressed by Andreas Arvidi (died 1673) in a book which he wrote on the art of poetry. The poetical literature of this period has been strikingly though somewhat severely characterized in the following words: "Stjernhjelm sang with his eyes fixed on the poets of Greece and Borne; his successors sang with their eyes fixed on him, but as they lacked his genius, the majority of them sank into servile imitation or fell into insipid rhyming." The religious poetry of the period is an exception, especially the hymns, in the composition of which the bishop, Haquin Spegel (1645-1714), distinguished himself. In his excellent psalms, many of which are still sung in the Swedish churches, we find deep feeling and genuine poetic sentiment. They are far superior to his long religious poems, among which is found "Gud's Werck och Hvila" (God's work and rest), a free translation of Arreboe's "Hexaëmeron."[3]
In this period the drama made an effort to abandon the student and court circles, to which it had hitherto been limited, and to appeal to the masses. The moralizing school-comedies disappeared about the middle of the seventeenth century, and were replaced by plays in the modern dramatic style. The French dramatists were studied and translated, and imitations were soon produced. At court allegorical ballets, a kind of operettas in rhymed verses, with dancing and music, were chiefly represented, while at the university the preference was accorded to the tragedies. About the year 1660, Urban Hjärne (1641-1724), who later became a famous physician, erected a theatre in the Upsala castle, where he caused dramas to be played by an amateur company of students. These dramas were partly translated and partly written by Hjärne himself or by other poets of the time. In 1686, a similar company first appeared in Upsala, and then proceeded to Stockholm, where they gave public entertainments for several years. Isak Börk (died 1701), the most prominent member of this "Swedish theatre," as the company was called, wrote several plays, among which is found "Darii Sorgespel" (the tragedy of Darius), for which he borrowed the materials from Curtius. In 1690, these entertainments were interrupted, and it was long before Sweden obtained another national theatre. Meanwhile it had to put up with the performances of foreign theatrical companies.
The patriotic element, which had not thoroughly succeeded in asserting itself in the poetry, since the imitation of foreign models was continually on the increase, found the freest play in the historiography of this period, if we, upon the whole, have a right to use this word in reference to the phantastic vagaries which the so-called historians produced. The splendid successes of the Swedish arms had kindled the national pride, and while the writers dreamed of a grand future in store for the fatherland, so they also indulged in all kinds of musings concerning its antiquity. Not satisfied with cherishing the hope that Sweden was going to be the first power in the world, they also imagined that it had already been so in the past, and they persisted in persuading themselves of this imaginary fact. In the previous epochs already, Johannes Magnus had written a work which contained no history, but all fiction. Now, on the other hand, brilliant air-castles were built on a very weak foundation of facts, yet so skilfully that nobody, and least of all the authors themselves, ever dreamed of doubting their reality. Even men of comprehensive learning and of keen intellects, as they abundantly proved themselves in other branches of knowledge, allowed themselves in their historical works to be carried away by the most absurd fancies. Thus the royal antiquary, Olof Verelius (1618-82), who distinguished himself by his excellent translations of the Swedish sagas, and whose antiquarian works were called by his contemporaries "the Ariadne-thread through the ancient monuments of the country," boldly maintained that "whosoever dared to doubt that the Goths who conquered Rome had set forth from Sweden should be punished as a criminal, and that any one who was heard to underrate the venerable age of the Swedish nation should have his head broken with runic stones."[4]
This fabulous historiography was carried to its climax by Olof Rudbeck the Elder (1630-1702). His special department was medicine, and he also studied anatomy with great zeal. Anatomy had been almost wholly neglected at the Upsala University, but by Rudbek it was developed into great prominence. At the age of twenty-two he discovered the system of lymphatic vessels so important in the science of anatomy, and this involved him in a violent controversy with the equally renowned Danish anatomist and scholar, Thomas Bartholin, who also claimed the honor of this discovery. They probably both made the discovery at the same time. Rudbek was a polyhistor in the true sense of the word, and at the university lie lectured not only on medicine, anatomy, and botany, to the latter of which branches he became as fondly devoted as he had been to anatomy, after his enthusiasm for the latter had waned, but also on physics, mechanics, mathematics, etc., and he also gave instruction in music. In addition to this comprehensive activity as a teacher, he was also engaged in many practical undertakings. Thus he built an anatomical hall for the university; laid out a botanical garden, and made 11,000 wood-cuts for an illustrated botanical work, which he had begun and which he called "Campi Elysii," or "Glysisvald," attempting to translate the Latin name into the terminology of Norse mythology. This great work was never completed, for in that conflagration which destroyed Upsala in 1702, his own house, with all its precious collections, became a prey to the flames. It may serve to illustrate the usefulness of this extraordinary man to mention that, during the fire, he quietly continued to direct the work of extinguishing the flames so as to save the university—whereby the library was rescued—though he had been informed that his own house was burning.
Rudbeck gained the greatest reputation among his contemporaries by his historical work "Atland eller Manhem," also called "Atlantika," a history of Sweden in antiquity. Until his fortieth year he had not occupied himself with historical studies, and was led into them for the first time by Verelius, who got him to prepare a map of Sweden for a historical work. In doing this he discovered, as he thought, to his great surprise, that the names and localities in Sweden bore a striking similarity to those of the mythic land Atlantis, in which Plato had located his ideal republic. Rudbeck seized on this thread, and with great learning and no less subtlety, but at the same time with the wildest freaks of the imagination, he went to spinning out this yarn in the firm conviction that he was writing an authentic history and not an archæological romance. He assumed that Sweden must be meant by Plato's Atlantis, that Paradise had been situated here, and that after the flood Japhet's son Magog had here founded the ancient Gothic kingdom. Names and other descriptions in Plato coincide, if one only assumes that the pronunciation has been slightly altered. Thus, according to Rudbeck, Heliogabalus is equivalent to "the holy Balder" (heilage Baldur). From this country, which became known to the Greeks through the Phenicians, all other lands of the world were colonized, and in Sweden all culture had originated.[5]
Rudbeck's great work, one of the most remarkable ever written, made an extraordinary sensation not only in Sweden, but also in all Europe, though in the four volumes, which he completed, he did not carry his history further than to Abraham. Many were deceived by the exposition which in its way is a masterly one, and the Swedes were beaming with delight over the world-old and honorable history, that had so unexpectedly fallen to the share of their fatherland. Men like Leibnitz, Pufendorf and others warned the public against being led astray by these day-dreams, but their voices were drowned in the general patriotic exultation. In Sweden any person who dared to doubt was looked upon as a national traitor, and thus a long time elapsed ere this splendid edifice, which so greatly flattered the national vanity, at length tumbled down.
By the side of these fanciful descriptions of Sweden's ancient greatness this period also produced several historical works, which were written with more sober judgment, and which have served as the basis of later researches. Thus Jonas Werwing (died 1697) wrote a history of Sigismund and Carl IX, and the historiographer of the realm, Johan Widrkindi (1618-78), a history of Gustav Adolph. Pufrndorf (1632-99) produced his celebrated "Indledning til Svenska Historien" and the history of Charles XII. The researches of Johan Peringskjöld (1654-1720) are excellent sources for later historians. His translations of Icelandic—among them of Snorre Sturlason's Heimskringla—are works of great merit. Johan Hadorph published several antiquarian documents and rhymed chronicles. The first Swedish church history in the native tongue was written by Haquin Spegel—already mentioned as author of religious poems—and his was followed by several similar works. Characteristic of the mania of this period for combining very learned deductions with the wildest day-dreams is the church history of Bang (1675), which was not brought down to the time of Christ even, and in which the author insists that Adam was bishop in the little Swedish town Kälkstad.[6]
During this period we also find the first works that made the Swedish language the object of scientific treatment. Nils Tjälmann wrote the first Swedish grammar (1696), and the works of the poet Johan Svedberg, a compendious grammar and a dictionary, are all the more important, since they established the orthography by substituting the spelling now in use for the older one.[7]
The literary productions in all other scientific branches consisted chiefly in Latin dissertations, but several important exceptions are to be mentioned. Urban Hjärne (1641-1724) was one of the most many-sided scholars of his age. After having dabbled in his youth with dramatic compositions, he made medicine his main branch. As a member of a commission that had been appointed to inquire into witchcraft, he was the first to attempt a rational solution of an evil which had cost the life of so many persons. He was also the first to point out the importance of the Swedish mineral waters, and the science of mining, so important to Sweden, was by him reduced to an intelligent system. On all these and on many other subjects he wrote valuable works, both in Latin and in Swedish. Johan Stjernhöök (1596-1675) set forth with great perspicuity the principles of ancient Northern laws, in his celebrated book on the legal institutions of Sweden's ancient population. Anders Celsius (died 1744) gained a European reputation especially by his discoveries and observations in physics. His scholarly dissertations on these subjects are written partly in Swedish, but principally in Latin. The most eminent theologian was Johan Terserus (died 1678), whose chief merit consists in having endeavored with great energy to introduce a more liberal tendency in the Swedish church in place of the stereotyped orthodoxy which obstructed every free aspiration. By degrees the principles of modern philosophy were established, to which result the circumstance greatly contributed that Cartesius, the real founder of that philosophy, lived a long time in Sweden, teaching and getting many followers in the country. Anders Rydelius (1671-1738) was Sweden's first great philosopher. His chief work, "Nödiga Förnufts-Oefningar att lära kenna thet sundas vägar och thet osundas felsteg" (necessary rational exercises for learning the ways of what is sound and the errors of what is unsound), is based on the principles of the Cartesian school, but is independent in many respects, and must be considered one of the most learned and prominent works of this period. He exercised a notable influence on the literary tendency of the following period from the fact that many of its most distinguished representatives had been his pupils.[8]
Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772) was one of the most marked and widely known characters of this period. After having gained considerable reputation by theoretical and practical works on mathematics, mechanics, and mining, he began to indulge in religious musings to which he had been inclined from his early boyhood. Mysticism at length got complete control of him; he became a seer, and in his numerous works he developed his wonderful theosophical system, which soon after his death was greatly ridiculed and disputed, but which even at the present time has many followers.[9]
- ↑ Stjernhjelm's poetical works were edited by P. Hanselli in Samlede vitterhetsarbeten af sveska Författare från Stjernhjelm till Dalin. Upsala, 1856.
- ↑ The works of Samuel Columbus, Peter Lägerlöf, Gustav Rosenhane, Gunno Eurelius Dahlstjerna, Carl Gripenhjelm and Torsten Rudén, are all edited by P. Hanselli, in Upsala.
- ↑ The works of Lasse Lucidor, Israel Holmström, Samuel Triewald, Jacob Frese, Joh. Runius and Sofia Elizabeth Brenner, are all edited by P. Hanselli, in Upsala. Haquin Spegel: Gud's Werck och Hvila, Stockholm, 1685; Andelige Psalmer, Stockholm, 1688.
- ↑ Olof Verelius: Epitomar, Hist. Suio-Goth. libri IV et Gothorum Rerum extra Patriam gestaram libri II, Holmiæ, 1710. Manuductio ad Runugraphiam Scandicam, Upsala, 1676.
- ↑ Olof Rudbeck: Atlantica eller Manhem, I-IV, Upsala, 1675-1702.
- ↑ J. Werwing: Konung Sigismunds och Konung Carl IX Historier, I-II, Stockholm, 1746. Joh. Widekindi: Gustaf Adolfs Historia, Stockholm, 1691. Pufendorf: Commentarioram de reb. suecicis libri xxvi ab expeditione Gustavi Adolphi regis in Germaniam ad abdicationem usque Christinæ, 1686. De rebus a Carolo Gustavo rege gestis commentarii Libri, VII, Nürnberg, 1696. Haquin Spegel: Then Svenska Kyrkohistoria, I-II, Linköping, 1707-08.
- ↑ Jesper (not Johan) Svedberg; Schibboleth, eller svenska språkets rycht och richtighet, Stockholm, 1716. Grammatica Svecana, Stockholm, 1722. En fullkomlig svensk ordabok exists in manuscript.
- ↑ Joh. Stjernhöök: De jure Sueonum et Gothorum vetusto, Holmiæ, 1672. Anders Celsius: Nova Methodus distantiam Solis a terra determinandi, 1730. Bref om Jordens Figur, 1736. Anders Rydelius: Nödiga Förnuftsœfningar, I-V, 1718.
- ↑ Emanuel Swedenborg: Arcana Cœlestia I-VIII, London, 1749-56.