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History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North/Part 3/Chapter 6

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History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North (1884)
by Frederik Winkel Horn, translated by Rasmus Bjørn Anderson
Part III. Chapter VI.
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Frederik Winkel Horn4434109History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North — Part III. Chapter VI.1884Rasmus Bjørn Anderson

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CHAPTER VI.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.


Franzén. Wallin. Introduction of the new romanticism in Sweden. Phosphorists, Hammarsköld, Atteebom, Palmblad and others. Gothic school. Geijer. Ling. Tegnér. Beskow. Nicander. Tegnér's successors, Lindeblad and others. Novel literature. Almquist. Mrs. Bremer. Mrs. Flygare-Carlen. Gumälius. Crusenstolpe. Rydberg. Malmström. Böttiger and other poets. Runeberg and his imitators. Topelius. Recent poets. Historiography. Other sciences.


IN he Swedish literature of the beginning of this century, the French academical school manifestly predominated, though it had lost its best talents. The foundation on which the foreign structure was built, was, however, in fact, completely undermined. The national tones, which had been heard, had not been unheeded by the people; on the contrary they had given far more satisfaction and pleasure than the rigid style of the Academy. Moreover, the correctness of the rules of taste which it established had been seriously questioned. The successful efforts made in Denmark by Ewald and Baggesen to establish a poetry on a genuine national foundation had contributed much to increase the desire in Sweden for an independent national poetry. But none of the opponents of the old school were well qualified to become the leader of the new, and the positive conditions for the latter were also wanting. As soon as these appeared the old school was doomed. The revolution of 1809, which was followed by an almost unrestricted freedom of the press, cleared the ground, and a more intimate acquaintance with modern German literature, particularly with Schelling's philosophy and the new romanticism based thereon, gave the decisive impulse. The banner of the new ideas was first raised by Lorenzo Hammarsköld, around whom there soon ​gathered a circle of young enthusiastic poets. From the periodical "Phosphoros," which they edited, they received the name Phosphorists. In their poetry they worshipped romanticism in the form in which it had appeared in Germany, with its vague longing, abstract reflections, its depreciation of reality, and its partiality for the misty middle age and graceful southern form of versification. But side by side with this hyperidealistic tendency there sprang up another movement, which was in some respects akin to it, but which had more of interest for real life, and which was preëminently national. It received the name of the Gothic school, because it strove to make Old Norse (Gothic) mythology and poetry and in general the whole antiquity of the North the basis of national culture and art. Besides the adherents of these two schools there were also some talented poets, who were independent not only of both schools, but also of the Academy. The two most eminent among these neutrals, Franzén and Wallin, appeared before the conflict between the old and the new schools had broken out.

Franz Michael Franzén was born in 1772 at Uleåborg in Finland, and became professor, at Åbo, but after the conquest of Finland he went to Sweden, where he died as bishop in Hörnesund in 1847. Already at the close of the eighteenth century his poems and songs, that were published in Kellgren's periodical, were read with pleasure by the public, and in 1797 he gained the prize offered by the Academy, for an exquisite poem in honor of Creutz, which did not, however, receive the unqualified approval of the Academy, since the form had been treated with more freedom than seemed desirable. Though Franzén did not blindly follow the precepts of the Academy, still he was unable to rise entirely above its influence. This fact is especially apparent in some of his longer poems, which are more or less didactic in their character. The didactic element is particularly prominent in his poem on the destiny of man, but the idyllic ​element, which was natural to him, predominates in his "Emili, eller en afton i Lappland" (Emili, or an evening in Lapland). Of his epic compositions "Svante Sture," a tale in verse in Walter Scott's style, is of importance, while his "Columbus" and the fragments of the national epic, "Gustav Adolph i Tyskland," are, in spite of the many beautiful episodes, upon the whole failures. This also applies to his very discursive drama "Lappflickan i Kungsträdgarden" (The Lapp-maid in the king's park.) His talent was limited to lyrics, but there it was rich and original. He was endowed with a keen eye for the idyllic in nature and in life; he loved to dwell thereon, and knew how to clothe his thoughts in the most graceful and elegant form. His religious songs are also exquisite."[1]

Johan Olof Wallin (1779-1839), "The David's harp of the North," as Tegner called him, was born in very needy circumstances, but by Herculean efforts of mind and will he raised himself to high positions and died as archbishop of Sweden. He was a man of great eloquence, giving his vigorous, pithy thoughts the most finished utterance, while his delivery was also very effective. The same qualities are also found in his hymns, many of which are of unrivalled beauty. In the excellent Swedish psalm-book, which was compiled under his direction, there are one hundred and twenty hymns by Wallin, while a large number of the others were translated or adapted by him. His last work of this kind was the touching hymn "Dödens Engel" (the angel of death). Wallin's secular poems cannot be compared with his religious songs, but still they too are marked by great warmth of feeling and an elegant style. They are partly idyllic and partly humorous. Humor seemed to be Wallin's element whenever he abandoned the religious field. By his didactic poem "Uppfostraren" (the educator), he won a prize from the Academy. His dithyrambic song, "George ​Washington," deserves special mention on account of its glowing enthusiasm.[2]

Lorenzo Hammersköld (1785-1827), who as already stated was the first to proclaim in Sweden (1804) the new ideas from Germany, was not of much account as a poet, but he exercised all the greater influence by his comprehensive activity as æsthetical critic. In this work he was frequently obstinate and one-sided, yielding nothing to his adversary, and in this way he gained many enemies. But posterity has seen the justice of many of his opinions by which he made himself obnoxious to his contemporaries, and it is also a characteristic fact that when he wrote anonymously his words were loudly applauded. By his criticisms he did not wish either to unfairly depreciate or to blindly condemn or make ridiculous, as had heretofore been done, the works that were submitted to his examination, but he maintained that criticism ought to serve the purpose of instruction, and in this direction he has certainly rendered very great services. He also wrote several solid works on the history of literature and art.

The greatest of the Phosphorist poets, Peter Daniel Amadeus Atterbom, was born in 1790. In his sixteenth year he became a student at the university and two years later took part in the founding of the literary society "Aurorabund," which became the chief seat of romanticism. In its organ "Polyfem" he published in 1809 his first great work, a comedy, which was very polemical in its character. When the Aurorabund in 1810 assumed the editing of the "Phosphoros," Atterbom became a zealous associate editor, and devoted his energies mainly to making violent attacks on the principles of the old school. His own principles were announced in his poems, which appeared in the "Poetiska Kalender," edited by him from 1812 to 1822. In connection with Hammersköld and three other Phosphorists he wrote the satirical heroic poem "Markalls sömnlösa nätter" (Mar​kail's sleepless nights), by which they meant to produce the moral ruin of the academician Wallmark, the press representative of his own party, but they were not successful. Atterbom's style showed great talent and strong faith in the correctness of the cause he defended, but on the other hand, it evinced great insolence and bitterness, and sometimes it was not free from rudeness. He accordingly provoked a general feeling of displeasure, and this the more, since Atterbom's own works as well as those of the romanticists in general were not above criticism. They were frequently bombastic and obscure; they gave their imagination loose reins and paid no attention to reality and its claims.

From 1817 to 1819 Atterbom lived abroad for the benefit of his health, and on his return he became prince Oscar's instructor in German. Later he was made professor of philosophy in Upsala, a position afterward exchanged for the chair of æsthetics. He took no more part in literary conflicts that were still raging, and his poetical industry henceforth put forth its choicest flowers. His most remarkable productions are, the dramatized fairy-tales "Lyksalighetens Ö" (the isle of bliss), and "Fogel Blå" (blue-bird), the latter a fragment. In their general character they remind us of Tieck. Prom a dramatic stand-point they are very unsatisfactory. The delineation of character is obscure and incomplete and the action is incessantly interrupted by lyric episodes, the relation of which to the drama is by no means evident. But these numerous lyric vagaries which are partly fantastic descriptions painted with glowing colors, and partly outbursts of passion, are, when considered separately, very beautiful. Furthermore, the poem, in its continual change from the most artistic and complex versification to the simple style of the popular ballad, is the work of the master. Atterbom is unquestionably one of Sweden's greatest lyric poets. But in him, too, we find the worst faults and weaknesses peculiar to the romantic school. Allegory and symbolism are altogether too prominent at the sacrifice of poetic effect. ​The arbitrary and discursive imagery with which these airy poems teem is on the whole tiresome and unenjoyable in spite of the exquisite details which they contain, and in spite of the great interest which such works as "Lyksalaghetens Ö" may have when considered as a striking example of a peculiar cosmic conception. His most original, and upon the whole, most attractive work is the poetical cycle "Blommarna" (the blossoms), though here the impression is disturbed by obscurity of thought and by a tendency to overload the style with symbols and figures. His numerous short lyric poems written in various metres, are, as a rule, excellent, both in form and contents. The finest among them is the little group "Minnesångarne i Sverige," in which he has imitated in a masterly manner the simple, hearty character of the popular ballad. His "Vandringsminnen" (recollections of travel), in which he describes the impressions from his journeys, are also very excellent. Upon the whole Atterbom seemed more and more to emancipate himself from the one-sidedness that marred his earlier works. He never succeeded, however, in freeing himself completely from foreign influence, and only in his short poems does he reveal himself undisguised in his true character.

Atterbom exercised a no less important influence on Swedish literature by his works on æsthetics and on the history of literature than by his poetry. His "Svenska siare och skalder," which he unfortunately did not complete, is a splendid collection of biographies and sketches of poets and philosophers before and during the reign of Gustav III. It should be mentioned that Atterbom in this work is no longer so narrow and bitter in his opinions in regard to the men of the past as he had been in his youth, and that he, upon the whole, is just to the Gustavians. There had also been effected a complete reconciliation between the old school and the new, a union which was confirmed by Atterbom's admittance as a member of the Swedish Academy in 1839. He died in 1855.[3]

​Wilhelm Frederik Palmblad (1788-1852) was also a zealous champion among the Phosphorists, he too being one of the founders of Aurorabund. He gained his chief celebrity as controversialist, for his other works, a few stories and the novels "Familien Falkensvärd" and "Aurora Königsmark," have no great value.

Among the Phosphorists the following are yet to be mentioned: Karl Frederik Dahlgren (1791-1844) was a somewhat gifted poet, whose idyls and descriptions of nature, are original and graceful. In his "Mollbergs Epistlar" and other bacchanalian poems he took Bellman for his model. His novel, "Nahum Frederik Bergströms Krönika" is one of the best in Swedish literature. Johan Börjesson (1790-1866) after having failed in his first youthful performance, a didactic poem, "Skapelsen" (the creation), published in 1846 the tragedy, "Erik XIV." The latter was soon followed by several other dramatic works, "Solen sjunker" (the sun sets), "Ur Karl XII's Ungdom" (Prom the youth of Charles XII), "Brödraskulden " (the brother's guilt), and "Erik XIV's son." All these plays, which are apparently imitations of Shakespeare, and which show here and there a spark of genius, have but little life and action, but contain many beautiful lyric passages. Julia Kristina Nyberg (1785-1854) wrote under the pseudonym Euphrosyne fine descriptions of nature, with fine elegiac coloring, and teeming with romantic mysticism and idyllic genre-pictures. Anders Abraham Grafström (1790-1870) wrote some very beautiful poems, and Samuel Johan Hedborn (1783-1849) some fine church songs.[4]

The two following poets were no real Phosphorists, but still they belong essentially to this group. Erik Johan Stagnelius (1793-1823) is one of the strangest phenomena in Swedish poetry. He was chiefly lyric, and what he wrote in this field is a true picture of his own character as developed by ​the severe sufferings and cares that were his lot. At times he soars free from trouble far above the earth, with eyes and heart open to the harmony of creation; bathing in the glowing light of the ether he forgets all grief; but at other times goaded into rage by his tortures, he abandons himself to images and thoughts so repulsive "that even the æsthetics of the horrible have no name for them." Between these extremes—between heaven and hell—he moves with genuine poetic vigor and superiority, and he is a skilful master of form, so that his poems are on the whole very valuable, though many of them are obscure on account of the peculiar mystic-pantheistic musings which they contain. His first great work was the epic poem, "Wladimir den store," which is characterized by vivid descriptions. His other similar works, "Blenda," "Gunlög," and others were never completed. Among his dramas we would particularly mention the religious tragedy, "Martyrerne," in which in a most thrilling manner he has conceived and carried out the idea of life as a punishment and a suffering. In his drama, "Riddartårnet" (the knight's tower), the diction is gorgeous, while the theme is not well adapted for the stage. The tragedy in antique style, "Bacchantorna," and those in antique form with Old Norse motives, "Visbur" and "Sigurd Ring," are more attractive, though the gnostic principles of the poet are displayed in "Visbur" and "Sigurd Ring" in so prominent a way as to injure the dramatic effect. Striking scenes are found in the plays, "Glädjeflicken i Rom" (the pleasure girl in Rome) and "Kärlek aften döden" (Love after death). The most original of his works is the half philo- sophical and half religious cycle of poems, "Liljor i Saron" (1820), in which he sets forth his views of the human soul as a prisoner in the halls of the princes of the world, and longing for the heavenly splendor, whence it came. Several of these sublime poems belong to the most beautiful ornaments of Swedish literature. Many of his short poems are ​very excellent, especially those in which he has imitated the style of the popular ballad.[5]

Vitalis (1794-1828), whose real name was Erik Sjöberg, was the son of a poor laborer. Too proud to accept charities as he called them, he declined all offered assistance, and he satisfied his thirst for knowledge by his own efforts, as for instance doing menial work in the country during the vacations. While thus tending the cattle his favorite poet, Virgil, was always his faithful companion. His studies were frequently interrupted for want of means, and he was forced to seek employment as family tutor. But he conquered all obstacles and took the doctor's degree in philosophy. This did not materially improve his circumstances, and he continued to struggle with poverty and want. This, in connection with a physical malady, which he had gotten in his infancy, developed in him that fondness for seclusion and meditation which he had in common with Stagnelius. In other respects they were totally different, for while Stagnelius abandoned himself to pantheistic mysticism, Vitalis was, at least toward the close of his life, a believing Christian. In his poems a deep elegiac tone predominates, no doubt a result of his incessant troubles and sufferings. He was continually striving after the ideal, and he hated all that was low and vulgar. Against the world which knew him not and whom he did not understand he frequently sent out shafts of bitter and scathing satire, which, however, at times, as for instance in "Komiska fantasier," rises to genuine humor. He evidently had a great talent for humor, but in his lonely, retired life it did not have a chance to develop. His attacks on the vagaries of the Phosphoristic and Gothic schools were brimful of wit and humor, which he produced in a most delightful manner. But his attacks were no doubt also the result of immense self-conceit. He meant to insinuate that he was himself above and independent of all parties. His serious poems reveal mostly ​a deep philosophical world-grief, and a feeling of relief is but rarely found, though his gloomy disposition was somewhat softened in his last years by a religious resignation to the will of heaven. His poems are rich in deep thought, though he does not always clothe them in the fittest words. His collected poems make but a small volume, as he had sufficient strength to destroy before his death many things which could not stand the test of his own severe criticism. Among what remains there is much that is beautiful and valuable. The best ones of his poems are certain melancholy songs that were inspired by hopeless love.[6]

The Gothic school, the rise of which was connected with the awakened national sentiment, desired a regeneration on the basis of the memories of the past and thus took substantially the same course as Oehlenschläger, by whom it was greatly influenced. Its chief standard-bearer was 1, one of the most eminent men in the history of Sweden's literature and culture, and a man who has in many ways left his impress thereon. He was born in Wermland the 12th of January, 1783. The majestic natural scenery of this province gave his spirit that earnest manly mould which characterized his whole life. In his seventeenth year he entered the university. When three years later the Academy offered a prize for the best work in memory of Sten Sture, he resolved to become one of the competitors. In order to clear himself from the reputation for fickleness, he finished his work in great secrecy. He gained the prize, and was at the same time admitted to the literary circles of that age. Still it took a long time before he could decide to what branch of intellectual work he should devote his powers. Through his comprehensive studies he gained the most varied impressions, especially of a philosophical and poetical nature, so that his profound and receptive soul became most violently agitated and all creative power within him was extinguished. He went to England for one year, and on his return in 1810, he ​was appointed a docent[7] in history at Upsala. from that time his mind became more composed and clear. The war between the Phosphorists and the old school had broken out. Geijer was unable to side with the former, though he admired Atterbom, and encouraged him to work for a literary reform. But he was too little of a dreamer and too deeply sensible how important it was that the national element should be recognized in art, to be able to join Atterbom's school. Geijer therefore took his own course, and with a few congenial spirits he founded the "Gothic Union" (Göthiska förbundet). By this name they wished to revive the memory of the consanguinity of the ancient inhabitants of Sweden with the Goths "Göther," and in "Iduna" (1811-24), the organ of this society, Geijer published his poems on Old Norse themes, "Manhem," "Vikingen," etc. They are not numerous, but they are master-pieces as regards strength and simplicity. The northern spirit is reproduced in a manner that has not hitherto been surpassed. While several of his cotemporaries tried to reach this end by a servile imitation of the external form of the old poems, and thus touched only the surface, Geijer on the contrary, by the most simple means reproduced the very marrow and essence. He wrote no long poems, but for a number of his short ones he has himself arranged the music in such a manner that words and melody are united in the most perfect harmony. These songs are still very popular everywhere in Sweden, and have become genuine folk-songs.

From 1815 Geijer delivered historical lectures and this practically closed his poetical career, though there ever afterward flowed an occasional poem from his pen. In his collected works we find essays on various subjects—on philosophy, on the history of culture, on politics, and on pædagogies, and in all we find his clear, manly spirit. But his best works are unquestionably the two on history, "Svea ​Rikes Häfder," and "Svenska Folkets Historia." The former is a very lucid and thorough presentation of the saga-age, but unfortunately only the first volume was completed. Of the history of the Swedish people there appeared three volumes, bringing the history down to the time of Charles X. It is a perfect model of careful, conscientious research and clear style. The "Föreläsningar öfver menniskans historie" were published in 1856, after his death, which occurred in 1847, from notes that had been made for his lectures. It is. a philosophy of history, which with great emphasis sets forth the individual as the moving power in the development of the world. Of his other philosophical and historical works we may yet mention "Feodalismen och republikanismen," "Om vår tids inne samhälls-förhållanden," and "Tecking af Sveriges tillstånd och af de förnämsta handlande personer under tiden från Karl XII, död till Gustav III, anträde af regeringen," all of which are equally distinguished for elegance of style and solidity of contents. His essay "Thorild. Tillika en filosofisk eller ofilosofisk bekännelse," published in 1820, is very interesting, as it illustrates his position in regard to the religious questions of his time. The opinions he therein expressed in reference to the dogma of redemption and that of the holy trinity caused him a law suit, But he came out victorious as he justly deserved, for throughout his literary activity Geijer proved himself a man of truly religious character, though he did not approve of a blind faith, based simply on authority.

Afzelius (1785-1871) became widely known by his translations of Old Norse poetry, the Edda, etc., and by his great work, "Svenska Folkets Sagohäfder," and in this manner he contributed his share to the development of the national element in the Swedish literature. Geijer published with him the first collection of Swedish popular songs (1814-16), to which by way of elucidation he added the excellent dissertation "Om den gamle nordiska Folkvisan."

After having labored for thirty years in the university ​Geijer left Upsala because he feared lie might get to be regarded as "an authority," while he wished to continue his life—as a "student." Not only in his scientific works, but also by his position toward the political movements of his time he proved that he valued truth above all things. For a long time he was an ardent conservative, but when through his studies he came to be convinced of the justice of liberal ideas, he had the courage "to desert himself," as he expressed it, and became one of the most zealous advocates of popular liberty. On account of the high consideration which Geijer's noble, intelligent and marked individuality enjoyed, this step was of great importance to the people's position in political questions. Geijer also exercised a great influence on the students. Seldom has a university professor been loved and respected as was he. He died on the twenty-fourth of April, 1847.[8]

Per Henrik Ling (1776-1839) represented the extreme tendency of the Gothic school. From his earliest childhood he had to fight against poverty and want, but his iron nature did not succumb. At the age of seventeen he was compelled to leave school in consequence of a thoughtless freak on the part of the pupils, of which he assumed the entire responsibility, and he thereupon spent several years abroad, mostly in military service, and served as he himself asserted, five different kings. He had also spent some time in Denmark, where he had attended Steffen's lectures. In 1806 he obtained an appointment in Lund as a teacher of fencing, and from this time he began his enthusiastic efforts in behalf of the regeneration of the nation, which he proposed to bring about, partly by a perfected system of gymnastics based on his own comprehensive knowledge of anatomy, and partly by the revival of the memory of the antiquity of the North with its healthy and invigorating customs. In the former respect his activity ​was exceedingly beneficial and led to the establishment of the system of "sanitary gymnastics;" but in the latter he made no headway with all his ideas and plans. His greatest service to Swedish literature was probably his influence on Tegnér, with whom he was on very friendly terms in Lund. As a poet Ling was decidedly a lyric, and as such he occasionally achieved excellent things, for instance in his pastoral poem, "Kärleken (Love), and in the lyric epic, "Tirfing." But this did not satisfy him, he also wanted to be both epic poet and dramatist. He desired to present to his countrymen the old world of gods and heroes, in other words, he wanted to be both their Shakespeare and Homer. His first work was the Epopöe "Gylfe," which he did not finish, and his last and chief work was the great poem "Asarne," in thirty songs. But both of these as well as his numerous northern dramas, "Agne," "Eylif den götiska, "Ingjald Illräda," "Engelbrekt," etc, though they contain many lyric passages of great beauty, were on the whole total failures. In him were united an almost endless discursiveness and an inability to produce living characters, with a vivid imagination and a glowing enthusiasm, which at times occasionally was able to produce episodes of startling beauty.[9]

The greatest poet of the Gothic school was Esaias Tegnér, who at last silenced all literary controversies, since he united in his great poetical talent all that which had been aimed at by the different schools, and since in all his works he satisfied not only the national element, but also the requirements of art. In spite of his admiration of foreign masters, all his works bear the stamp of unmistakable originality. Tegnér was born the 13th of November, 1782, in the province of Värmland. He early lost his father, who was a priest, but found patrons who assumed the care of his studies. Already in his twentieth year he became docent in æsthetics, and ten years later he was appointed professor of Greek in Lund. Here he became celebrated as a gifted and efficient ​university professor. In 1824 he became bishop in Vexiö, which position he held until his death in 1846.

Already in his early youth Tegnér wrote verses, but they were in the academic style, and did not reveal any particular talent. Then he wrote in 1808 the war song, "För skånska landtvärnet" (for the militia of Scania), and this song gained him the hearts of all. In 1811 he won the prize of the Academy by his grand poem, "Svea." In a vigorous and commanding style he addresses the sluggish age, holding up before his countrymen the customs of their fathers as a mirror, admonishing them in burning words to follow in the footsteps of their ancestors, and promising them with glowing enthusiasm a glorious future, if they heed his warning. He begins the poem in the traditional Alexandrines, which soon, however, have to yield to a freer rhythm in harmony with the tempestuous torrent of his thoughts. This poem had a very marked influence on the development of Swedish literature, not only on account of its enthusiastic, imaginative diction, but also because it abandoned the rigid academic form. His reputation as one of the greatest poets of his country was firmly established, and it grew with every new poem. He now joined the Gothic Union, but kept aloof from its exaggerations, and did not hesitate to recognize the excellent qualities of the men of Gustav III's time, as he did with emphasis in one of his most famous poems, an address in verse on the occasion of the semi-centennial celebration of the Academy. On the other hand, he took a very decided stand against the Phosphorists, and he frequently took them to task in his speeches and poems, and ridiculed with withering sarcasm their exclusiveness and want of a definite purpose. But he contributed most to the eradication of Phosphoristic hyperidealism by his greater poems, which were received with great enthusiasm by the people.

In 1820 appeared the idyl "Nattvärdsbarnen"[10] (the Children of the Lord's Supper), probably the best poem he ever ​wrote, for nowhere else did his peculiar talent find a better opportunity of blossoming in a natural and splendid manner than in the three addresses of the old preacher, which constitute the main part of the poem. It is a masterly production marked by a deep, earnest, religious sentiment, and abounding in graceful descriptions of natural scenery.

The enthusiasm of the public increased when, in 1820, the narrative poem, "Axel," appeared, which is somewhat sentimental, but very rich in beautiful lyric episodes. It is prefaced with an exquisite dedicatory poem to Leopold. The public enthusiasm reached its climax, however, in 1825, on the publication of "Frithjofs Saga," the first cantos of which had previously been printed in the "Iduna." This cycle of romances, which in form is a gem of beauty, and the contents of which are taken from an Old Norse saga of the same name, became Tegnér's most celebrated work, and is probably the most famous Scandinavian production. It has been trans- lated into nearly every European tongue.[11] Besides his greater, but unfinished works, "Gerda " and "Kronbruden," we may mention "Karl XII," "Epilog vid magisterpromotionen 1826," and "Sång till Solen " (Hymn to the sun) as the best among his numerous short poems.

In the last years of his life Tegnér was afflicted with a hereditary mental malady, and was obliged to remain for a long time in a lunatic asylum. When he left it he had sufficiently recovered the use of his mind to be able to resume his official duties, but his bodily health was broken, and he died on the 2d of November, 1846.

The most prominent feature of Tegnér's poetry is his splendid rhetoric, and the exuberant gorgeousness of his imagery. The eloquence he displayed from the pulpit, from the professor's chair, and on many special occasions, we meet with again in his poems, many of which are simply speeches in verse. This marked rhetorical character of his poems was ​probably inherited from the old school, but it was at the same time deeply rooted in his nature, and the latter fact contributed essentially to the great love with which the Swedes clung to his works, for in them the peculiar traits of the Swedish people have found their fullest and most beautiful expression. But this side of Tegnér's poetry undeniably conceals great dangers, and frequently he has failed to avoid them, so that the splendid imagery and the rhetorical display of words have preponderated, and thus weakened and distorted the poetic effect. This is particularly the case in "Frithjofs Saga," in which, as has been strikingly said, "the lyric element of the poem has been hung as a beautiful drapery over very ordinary materials," and is not really in harmony with it. But the splendor and beauty of the images are so dazzling and enchanting that they irresistibly carry us away, and they also generally contain a wealth of sublime and poetical thoughts. It has been suggested that Tegnér was an eclectic, and so he was, not only in his attitude to the poetical tendencies of Sweden, but also in his sympathies with the master-pieces of foreign literature. His "Nattvärdsbarnen" contains unmistakable traces of Goethe's "Hermann und Dorothea." Byron's narrative poems furnished him the model for "Axel," and "Frithjofs Saga" is written under the influence of Oehlenschläger's "Helge." In this there is, however, nothing to be blamed, for Tegnér maintained his independence of these models. His poems are thoroughly Swedish, and bear the undisguised stamp of his individuality.[12]

Bernhardt von Beskow (1796-1868) is one of the most remarkable writers of the Gothic school. In his earliest poems the national element was distinctly manifest, and being the master of a graceful form, his name soon became very popular. In 1824 he won the prize of the Academy with his poem, "Sveriges Anor," in which his style displays ​its most gaudy splendor and a wealth of gorgeous images. But his dramatical works, "Torkel Knutson," "Erik XIV," and others were received with the greatest favor, as they well deserved, since they are the best that Sweden has produced in this branch of literature. The Swedish drama is wanting in a vigorously sustained action, and from this reproach even Beskow is not free, though his plays are exceedingly interesting as historical pictures. As secretary of the Academy, there devolved on him the duty of writing necrologies of the deceased members of the Academy, and thus we have from his pen a great number of "Minnestekningar," which are most elegant and masterly delineations of character. His biographies of Charles XII and Gustav III are also marked by the same excellence of style, though neither the latter nor his "Minnesteckningar" bear the test of strict historical criticism.[13]

In Karl August Nicander (1799-1839), though he belonged to the national school, the romantic element of the Phosphorists was prominent, and he particularly showed a dreamy longing for the South. His talent as a poet was not very great or it did not attain its complete development, for like his friend Vitalis he was involved in a constant struggle with want and misery, and was finally snatched away by an early death. His first more ambitious work, the dramatic poem, "Runesvärdet," in which he depicts the conflict between heathenism and Christianity, at once made him very popular, a popularity which was increased by the "Hesperiden," a collection of poems and tales, and by "Minder fra Syden" (Reminscences from a journey to Italy). Upon the whole those of his poems, the materials of which have been taken from Italy, such as "Tassos död" and "Koning Enzio," are the most successful. His last great work, "Lejonet i Örkenen" (the lion in the wilderness), an enthusiastic homage to ​Napoleon, is not equal to his former efforts. His strength was at that time already broken.[14]

Assar Lindeblad (1800-48) is to be mentioned as the most conspicuous representative of that legion of poets, who, filled with admiration for Tegnér and his style, followed blindly in the footsteps of their great leader. The majority of them were mere amateurs. A few of them had talent, but carried their devotion so far that they sacrificed their own independence, and simply strove to imitate their master. This sort of Tegnérism could not fail to exert a noxious influence on Swedish literature. The faults of Tegnér, which his many great merits outshone, and which were to some extent dignified by the eminent personality of the poet, found the most ready imitators, and were even offered as virtues. Rhetoric began to make itself conspicuous at the expense of poetry. Fortunately a strong reaction soon set in against this humbug, and talented poets made a decisive resistance. Before discussing any of the latter, we must name a few others who belong to this epoch, but who cannot well be classified.

Christian Erik Fahlcrantz (1790-1866) is chiefly known as the author of "Noaks Ark," which, though not completed, ranks as Sweden's most celebrated humoristic poem. It vigorously attacks the vagaries of the various schools, sparkles with humor and stinging wit, and contains passages of great beauty. His lyric epic, "Ansgarius," in fourteen cantos, gives evidence of a fertile imagination, and is pervaded by a warm, noble sentiment, but it suffers in several passages from a certain didactic dryness, and is overloaded with historical materials. Many of his shorter poems are distinguished by grace of form and vigorous diction.[15]

One of the strangest phenomena, a character who stands utterly alone in the history of Swedish literature is Karl Johan Ludwig Almquist. He was born in 1793, took the master's degree in 1815, and then lived as an official in Stock​holm, whence, in 1823, together with a few friends, he set out for the province of Värmland, in order to realize in the forests of this region his phantastic dreams of a return to natural life according to the principles of the old Norsemen, dreams which were born of the fundamental principles of the Gothic school. But they soon found the reality rather rough, and Almquist returned to Stockholm, where, in 1827, he became the rector of one of the largest elementary schools. He now began a very comprehensive literary activity, published first a number of school-books in various branches of study, and then entering the field of higher literature. He soon fell into severe collision with other writers, and the result was long and bitter feuds, until Almquist, who in the meantime had become a preacher, was accused of forgery and strongly suspected of an attempt to commit murder by poisoning, sought safety in flight and emigrated to America. After a few years he returned to Europe, and died in Bremen in 1866.

It is extremely difficult to give a general outline of Almquist's character as a writer, for his productions comprise the most glaring contradictions and lack the foundation which only a clear and definitely marked individuality affords. He once said of himself, that he felt within him an "inspiration toward something heavenly and earthly," which must be interpreted to mean that he alternately pursued lofty and base objects. While in some of his works, as for example in the stories "Kapellet" and "Grimstahamns Nybygge," there is a purity and beauty which might almost be called "celestial," there is in others of his works so much that is "earthly," or rather demoniac, that it does not seem possible that both have flowed from the same pen. As his character lacked an ethical basis he gave loose reins to his wonderfully rich and powerful imagination which was everywhere at home. He controlled his fancy only so as not to violate æsthetical laws, not caring whether the ethical laws were respected or not. The claim of the ​omantic school that no restraints must be put on the imagination was carried out to its last extremity, and in no other poet do we meet with a play of the fancy, so capricious, so arbitrary and so grotesque at times as in Almquist. His own utterance on this point is very characteristic: "I paint thus, because it pleases me to paint thus." The most of his works are captivating in spite of the strange subjects chosen, on account of the gorgeous images which he knows how to conjure forth, on account of the masterly style, and on account of the wealth of new, original thoughts. But few of his works give undivided satisfaction, for in many of them he ruthlessly and in a revolting manner tramples into the dust all that is noble and best, and the circumstance that his geniality always throws a splendid veil over the demon makes him a very dangerous writer. The two stories named above are, however, not of this vicious sort. By his attempt at founding a colony in Värmland, he showed his dissatisfaction with the existing state of things, and thus he also attacks in his writings Christianity, marriage, etc., and these attacks are the more offensive when it is found that in other works he presents opposite views. For this reason the antipathy against him was continually increasing, and when in 1839 he had published his novel "Det går an" (It will do), in which he advocates free love as against marriage, the disgust broke out in open attacks and as a consequence he lost his position. He now threw himself with all his strength into the periodical press and in numerous articles he presented his revolutionary doctrines, and by the force of circumstances he was drawn deeper and deeper into these troubles until he finally was obliged to leave the country.

Almquist's principal work, "Törnrosens bok, eller fria fantasier" is a rich collection of poems of the most varied kind. Among those in epic form, "Arturs jagt" and "Schems-el-Nihar" belong to the best productions in all Swedish literature. Among his dramas we must mention "Remido Marinesco," in which the son of Don Juan is represented as a ​person who, whenever he feels love for a maiden and desires to make her his bride, discovers that she is a daughter of his father; "Marjam," in which the apostles appear as lunatics, and "Isidor af Tadmor." The best of his tales are "Araminta May," a masterly work in the form of letters; "Skällnora quarn" (The mill at Skällnora), the two before mentioned, which contain exquisite descriptions from popular life, and which may be compared with Björnson's peasant stories; and "Kolumbine," in which is described how a fallen woman purines herself through her love for a man. Among his numerous romances we may name "Amalie Hillner," "Gabriele Mimanso," and "Tre fruar i Småland."[16]

Since the time of Mörk novel literature had been almost stagnant in Sweden, and the public had been satisfied with translations from French and German. But in the first half of this century there appeared several writers of original novels, of which the following were the most remarkable: Frederik Cederborgh (1784-1835) furnished in the comical novels, "Urso von Trasenberg" and "Ottar Trailing," humorous sketches from every-day life. The burlesque element is too prominent and the stories lack plots, but still they became very popular, and are still widely read. Of far greater importance were the writings of the three renowned Swedish female novelists. Fredrika Bremer (1801-65) published in 1828 her first book, "Teckningar ur hvardagslifvet" (Sketches from every-day life). It was at once favorably received on account of the fine conception of characters and situations, while the warm religious feeling and the light graceful style, rendered still more attractive by a delicate vein of humor, made it very popular, and the author soon found herself surrounded by a large circle of friends and admirers. Her works ​were spread far beyond the limits of Sweden, and were translated into many foreign tongues. Her special field was to describe every-day life, as she did in her first book, and those of her works which have this for their exclusive purpose are very excellent. In this class we may mention "Presidentens döttrar" and "Grannarne." But in her later works there are found things which decidedly weaken the poetic effect. In her father's house she had suffered much because she was not like the others, and because she would not accommodate herself to the forms which society imperiously demanded of women. Thus was ripened in her mind the idea of the rights of women to be on the same level with men, and in her later novels she advocates the cause of woman. Religious and philanthropical questions were also discussed in her novels, and this was likewise a detriment to them. When we except her books of travel, "Hemmen i nya verlden" (Homes in the New World) and "Lifvet i gamla verlden" (Life in the Old World)), most of her later works, "Syskonlif", "Hertha," etc., rank far below her earlier works in freshness and poetic charm.[17]

While Fredrika Bremer describes the life of the middle classes, Sofia Margareta von Knorring (1797-1848) finds the materials for her stories among the higher classes of society. She had a keen eye for their follies and frivolities, but she lacked that discrimination and that vein of satire, which alone could have given her descriptions the highest and permanent value. Her novels are vivid and graceful, but they lack naïve simplicity and frankness, by which Bredrika Bremer makes her sketches so charming. Among her most remarkable works are "Kusinerna," "Axel," "Ståndsparalleler" and "Torparen och hans omgifning," in the last of which she has abandoned her special sphere and ​successfully entered the field of popular life.[18] In this department Emilie Flygare-Carlen (born 1807) has made her reputation. She spent her childhood and early youth on the rocky shores of Bohuslän, and in her best works, "Rosen på Tistelön," "Enslingen på Johannisskäret," and "Et Köpemanshus i Skargärden," she has given us scenes and incidents from the home of childhood. She has also written novels which describe life in the higher circles of society. She does not possess Miss Bremer's ideal view of life nor Sofia Knorring's graceful vivacity, but she is superior to both in the arrangement of her materials and in her varied and faithful pictures of nature and popular life.[19]

Karl Anton Wetterberg (born 1804) began in 1840 the publication of his stories and novels, which he has continued to the present, using the pseudonym Onkel Adam, and borrowing his materials chiefly from every-day life and from the lower classes of the population. His works are pervaded by a very humane sentiment and show a fine talent for observation, and his style, through which there breathes a gentle humor, frequently attains the highest degree of perfection. It is not strange, therefore, that his stories have found great favor with the reading public, and that they have not yet lost any of their old power to charm. The most important among them are, "Genremälningar," "Pastorsadjunten," and "Et Namn." In his old age he has published a collection of very graceful lyrics under the title of "Blad ur Katarina Mänsdotters minesbok " (Leaves from the journal of Katarina Mänsdotter, the wife of Erik XIV).[20]

August Blanche (1811-68) has produced many excellent things in the way of novels and tales, and his short stories contained in "Taflor och Berättelser" and "Bilder ur verk​ligheten," are exceedingly well written. He had at his service a vivid imagination and keen faculties for observation, and he displays them to excellent advantage in his short, cheerful description of Stockholm life, while his long novels are frequently lacking in the development of the plot. Blanche was a very successful dramatist. Among his plays we may mention "Magister Blackstadius" and "Om politiska Rocken," which deal with the social life of Stockholm. They abound in humor and amusing situations, but do not satisfy the strict laws of the drama.[21]

Swedish literature is rich in historical novels. The ground was first broken by Gustaf Wilhelm Gumälius (born 1789), who, after the publication of a few small poems, produced, in 1828, "Tord Bonde," a novel in the style of Walter Scott. On account of the graphic historical pictures it contained the book was received with favor, and justified the greatest expectations for the future. The latter were not, however, satisfied, as the author did not complete his story, and wrote no more novels. In his old age he wrote the epic poem, "Engelbrekt." Per Georg Sparre (1790-1871) based his novels, "Den siste friseglaren" and "Standaret," on comprehensive historical studies, and they are accordingly faithful and interesting pictures of their time. In the widely read novel "Snapphanarne," by the still unknown pseudonym O. K., the historical materials serve merely as a framework for the romantic descriptions. Henrik Mellin (born 1803) treads in his "Blomman på Kinnekulle" and "Sivard Kruses bröllop," the middle way, satisfying the claims of history and romance at the same time. Karl Samuel Frederik von Zeipel (1793-1849), who, in his early youth, produced some rather insignificant poems in a marked Phosphoristic, romantic spirit, subsequently wrote several historical novels, of which the best are "Seton," a sketch from the times of Gustav III, and "De Sammansvurna," descriptions from the times of Charles XII and Frederick I. ​Karl Anders Kullberg (1813-57) has given us a splendid historical picture in his "Gustav III och hans hof," while his other works are not of much account. The works of Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe (1795-1865) are of vast importance, though the spirit of hatred that prevails in them deprives them of a part of their value. King Carl Johan availed himself of Crusenstolpe's journalistic talent for personal ends, and the latter seemed at first to be entirely at the king's service. But suddenly he changed his mind and attacked the government in the most violent and reckless manner, for which he had to serve three years in prison. Nevertheless, he continued to the day of his death to "disfigure" the history of Carl Johan. This was the purpose of the novels "Morianen" (the Moor) and "Carl Johan och Svenskarne," which are called historical works, but which, nevertheless, when considered as pictures of the times, are very unreliable, the facts being frequently distorted and grouped simply to satisfy a party spirit. The style is always masterly, but on account of the prejudices of the author it fails to produce the desired impression. Karl Frederik Ridderstad (born 1807) has borrowed the materials for his interesting novels partly from history ("Drabanten," "Fursten," etc.), and partly from his own time ("Stockholms Mysterier," "Den svarta handen," etc.), and has also written dramas and lyric poetry. His style is somewhat broad and his characters are not always clearly drawn, but he has a fertile and vivid imagination, and his works are full of life and warmth. Here we must also mention the Finlander, Zachris Topelius (born 1818), whose series of novels, "Fältskärens berättelser" (the Surgeon's stories), is justly regarded as one of the finest prose productions in the Swedish language. The series consists in a number of graphically drawn pictures from life in Sweden and Finland in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, for which the history of this exceptionally eventful period furnishes a very fine background. Both in Sweden ​and Finland the "Surgeon's Stories" are the favorite reading of all classes.[22]

One of the most prominent Swedish writers of modern times is Viktor Rydberg (born 1829), and particularly his novels, "Den siste Atenaren," "Fribytaren på Östersjön," and "Singoalla," have received the highest praise and been widely read. The first of these is a very important work, which gives a graphic and striking picture of those dark and restless times, when paganism and Christianity were still at war with each other. Rydberg is the champion of liberal ideas in every direction, but more especially in the religious field. The author himself calls "The Last Athenian" a polemical book, and this epithet may also be applied to his other æsthetical works, for in all of them he deliberately attacks obscurantism and blind faith in authorities. But the poetic effect of his novels suffers in no way either from this or from the thorough historical study of the times which he describes. A result of his comprehensive historical investigations is the "Romerska Dagar" (Roman Days), a series of splendidly executed pictures from the times of Imperial Rome. This volume, which stands unrivalled in point of style, is based on the artistic monuments preserved from the old Roman days. His poems are not numerous, but their masterly form and wealth of thought give them rank among the best poetry in Swedish literature.[23]

Having thus traced the novel literature of Sweden down to the latest times, it is necessary to go back again a little. We have seen that Tegnér had a number of followers, nearly ​all of whom imitated their master in a one-sided spiritless fashion, and debased his poetic style into mere mannerism. At the same time there was also a healthier tendency among a small circle of poets who strove to combine Tegnér's clearness in thought and expression, with the deeper sentiments and the natural symbolism of the Phosphorists, and in these efforts the two tendencies would alternately prevail. The most successful of these poets was Bernhard Elis Malmström (1816-65). His poems are not very numerous, but they abound in fine, noble sentiments, and are so excellent in form that they have become great favorites among the people. Among his short poems the romance, "Hvi suckar det så tungt uti Skogen?" which is well known throughout Sweden, is no doubt the best. The narrative poem, "Fiskarflickan från Tynnelsö" and the elegy, "Angelica," are also very fine. Malmström was professor of literature and æsthetics in the Upsala University, and is widely known as the author of "Literaturhistoriska Studier," while his extensive work, "Grunddragen af svenska vetterhets historia," is more or less one-sided, though it contains many excellent details. Carl Wilhelm Böttiger (1807-79) was also a talented poet. His soft elegiac verses are characterized by great excellence of form, but they frequently fall into a rather sentimental tone. They found, however, great favor with the public, and found many imitators who lost themselves in the most insipid exaggerations. His monographs of celebrated, especially Swedish, poets were highly appreciated, and they are genuine models of their kind.[24] Of the poets belonging to the school represented by Malmström and Böttiger, we may mention Herman Sätherberg (born 1812), Adolph Frederik Lindblad (born 1808), Gudmund Silfverstolpe (1815-53), Gustaf Lorenz Sommelius (1811-48), and Johan Nybom (born 1815).

The great number of novels, with subjects borrowed from ​every-day life, and the comedies by Blanche and others, especially by Johan Jolin (born 1818), contributed in a great measure to counteract the narrow idealism. A humoristic element was further added, which had essentially the same effect. It was first introduced by Fahlcrantz, whose "Noacks Ark" appeared in 1825, and then in a still more effective form by Johan Anders Wadman (1777-1839). The latter particularly excelled in improvisations, and at merry gatherings his verses flowed freely in praise of wine and love, but he has also written both earnest and humorous poems of lasting merit. It must be admitted that he had a keen eye for nature and a fine sense for the idyllic in life, though he was mainly a humorist. In the latter capacity he was exceedingly witty and funny, and it is to be regretted that he has so often marred his compositions by rude and cynic expressions.[25]

But Wilhelm von Braun (1813-60) did the most effective work in this direction, and he appeared just at a time when the public had been surfeited with sentimentalism. He was originally a military officer, but in his thirty-third year he abandoned this career in order to devote himself exclusively to literature. His poems and tales have as a rule a keen touch of satire, but there are also found in them frequent effusions of sentiment, as for instance in "Quinnoögat" (a woman's eye), and he sometimes climbs to the heights of genuine humor. The graceful freshness of his songs at once gained him many friends, though some were offended at the uncouth and homely phrases which he was unable to avoid. Still his poetry was so quaint and charming that he has become one of the most popular poets of his time.

Oscar Patrick Sturzenbecker (1811-69), known by the nom de plume Orvar Odd, was also a vigorous intellect, and did valuable service in literature to the cause of Scandinavian unity. His feuilleton-like sketches in "Grupper och person​ager från igåand "La Veranda," evince the skill of the master, and many of his poems are very fresh and graphic.[26] As authors of songs we have still to mention Elias Sehlstedt (1808-74) and Gunnar Wennerberg (born 1817). The latter's collection of excellent humorous songs is known throughout the North under the name, "Gluntarne " (The Youths), for which he also composed the melodies.[27]

The development, which had begun with the struggle between the old and the new schools, closed with Runeberg, who, after the decease of Tegnér, ascended the poetical throne of Sweden. He was born in Finland, "the thousand laked land," which had already before given Swedish literature several prominent authors, and poets like Frese, Creutz, and Franzén. In these predecessors of Runeberg we can already trace a Finnish element in the idyllic-elegiac style, which was peculiar to them, though it came out distinctly and powerfully for the first time in Runeberg's poetry. The former were, notwithstanding this marked national stamp, essentially Swedish poets, but the latter belongs at least as much to Finland as to Sweden.

The Grand Duchy of Finland, which until 1809 belonged to Sweden, and was then ceded to Russia, is chiefly inhabited by Finlanders, a people related to the Magyars, and having nothing in common with the Scandinavians or Russians, and only the seventh part of Finland's population is Swedish. When the country was conquered by the Swedes in the Middle Ages, Swedish culture introduced in connection with Christianity took such deep roots that the intellectual life in Finland has from that time been mainly Swedish in its character. The university which Queen Christina founded in Åbo, in 1640, and which in 1828 was transferred to Helsingfors, was in all essentials Swedish, and the Swedish Finlanders considered themselves Swedes. But it was only on the ​seaboard that Swedish culture struck roots. In the interior the Finnish tribes preserved their language and customs, and in one century there has been formed a strong national movement, which has already resulted in a conspicuous and extensive literature in the Finnish tongue. The first impulse to this movement was given by Porthan (1739-1804) by his activity in behalf of the history and national poetry of Finland. His example was afterward followed by many others. Among them the highest honor is due to Elias Lönnrot (born 1802), for it is by his efforts mainly that so much of Finland's poetry has been preserved. This remarkable and partly very old popular poetry, the so-called "Runor," is chiefly of a lyric character, with a quaint, sublime, and melancholy undertone, which harmonizes exquisitely with the wild, stern nature of the country in which it originated, for, as a Finnish song has it, "The Finnish harp is built of evil days, and its strings are made of sorrow." This poetry still lives, or has at least lived until very recently, on the lips of the people. The most excellent of what has been preserved is the Kalevala (the Finnish Edda), which contains the ancient mythological traditions in the form of lyric epic songs.[28] Among this song-loving people Runeberg was born, and the development of his mind took place just at the time when the grand Kalevala literature was first published.

Johan Ludvig Runeberg was born February 5, 1804, in Jakobstad, where his parents lived in poor circumstances. A relative of his took an interest in him, and in 1822 Runeberg became a student, from which time he was compelled to help himself. He had grown up under the influence of general European culture such as it was found among the Swedish Finlanders, and his favorite poet was Franzén, but later a sojourn of several years as tutor in the parish of Sarijärvi proved of the greatest importance to his future development. Here in the heart of Finland a number of new impressions ​poured in upon him, and became indelibly stamped upon his soul, to be afterwards reproduced in his poetical compositions. In one of his best prose works he has given a masterly description of the grand, wild nature and of the quaint popular life of this region, where the people even at the present day preserve the same simple ways they did centuries ago. In 1830 he was appointed docent in Latin literature at the Helsingfors University, and in this same year he published his first collection of poems, chiefly lyrics. It contains among other things a poem of some length, "Svartsjukans nätter" (Nights of Jealousy), which, like several of his earlier poems, suffers from a certain pretentious pathos and a sort of didactic style borrowed from Tegnér. His simple and charming scenes from real life are far superior to the former, especially those fine and graceful songs, entitled "Idyll och Epigram," which in tone and spirit are closely related to the Finnish and Serbian popular ballads, but without being an imitation of them. He thereupon published a collection of Serbian popular songs in a Swedish translation, and also the epic-lyric poem, "Grafven i Perrho," which latter won the prize offered by the Swedish Academy. This poem represents a Finnish peasant family which has been surprised by the Kossack enemy, and is tortured to death. The father curses his son in the belief that he has absented himself from cowardice, but still lives to see the latter avenge both his father and his brothers. In this no less effective than simple sketch, Runeberg is for the first time wholly and completely a Finnish poet, filled with an ardent patriotism, and with a profound appreciation of the exceptive position of his people who have been steeled in a desperate struggle for existence. From this time his master works follow in rapid succession. Among the first were the idylls, "Elgskyttarne" (the Elk-hunters), "Hanna," and "Julqvällen" (Christmas evening), all three in the broadest epic form in hexameters, reminding us of Goethe's "Hermann und Dorothea," and in no way inferior to that poem. The action in these idylls is very simple, but ​the pictures from popular life are perfect models of graphic and faithful description, and at the same time they show the finest psychological insight. This particularly applies to "Elgskyttarne," which is one of the most excellent works of this kind in existence. Runeberg displayed his lyric talent not only in a number of excellent lyric poems, but also in several lyric epic compositions, among which are "Nadeschda," a Russian subject treated with great grace and delicacy, and "Kung Fjalar," in which the world sung by Ossian is reproduced in grand outlines, that are pervaded by the idea of an inexorable tragical fate.

But Runeberg's chief work is "Fänrik Ståls sägner" (the Stories of Ensign Stål), of which the first part appeared in 1848, and the second part in 1860. He here gave his people a national work of the greatest value. In no other of his productions has his spirit unfolded fairer blossoms or soared to loftier heights of pathos than in this collection of romances describing scenes from the second Finnish war. The situations are depicted so vividly, faithfully and graphically, and the characters are drawn with such consummate skill, that they stamp themselves indelibly on the memory. Every one of these poems, each written in a metre of its own, is a master-piece, and together they are the most beautiful heroic drapa that was ever composed for or in honor of any nation. The whole collection is pervaded by a deep and warm patriotic sentiment, which is so gloriously expressed in the song, "Vårt land, våland, våfosterland," which forms the introduction to the romances. None of his other works have like this contributed so much toward making Runeberg the national poet both of Sweden and Finland, for he sings the common struggle and the common misfortune of both countries in tones that on the stranger make the impression of rare beauty, while on those who are more intimately related to the events described, they must of necessity produce a most powerful effect. Of dramatical works Runeberg has composed only the play, "Kan ej," which, though delicately writ​ten, is somewhat insignificant, and the splendid tragedy, "Kungarne på Salamis." The latter was published in 1863, and was his last work. Having been made an invalid by an apoplectic stroke, he continued to live in Borgå, where, since 1837, he had been a lector at the gymnasium, and where he died May 6, 1877.

A poet with a talent so great and comprehensive as Runeberg's, whose poetry was based on a sound and harmonious view of life, could not fail to exercise a powerful influence, and the fact is, he produced, both in Finland and in Sweden, a tendency toward realism, and simplicity of style has gradually superseded the overstrained, pompous language of the first half of this century. In Finland he has been followed by a number of poets, who, in the best sense of the word, may be characterized as belonging to the Runeberg school. Their chief excellence consists in their efforts to produce in a clear, unaffected manner, vivid and pathetic descriptions of homely things and scenes. The most conspicuous representatives of this tendency are: Nervander (1805-48), chiefly a lyric poet; Cygnäus (born 1807), author of lyric and dramatic poems; Stenbäck (1811-70), a talented lyric poet; and 1, whose exquisite historical novels have already been mentioned. The latter's elegant lyric poems are exceedingly popular, and not less so his dramas, "Titians förste Kärlek " (Titian's first Love), "Prinsessan af Cypern," etc. His juvenile readers deserve special mention, for the prose and poetry they contain are very charming, and have a very stimulating influence on the young. Finally, Julius Vecksell (born 1838) deserves to be mentioned. Among his works, which by the way are not very numerous, the national tragedy, "Daniel Hjort," is unquestionably the most excellent, and it is one of the best dramas in Swedish literature. In his twenty-fifth year he was, unfortunately, afflicted by an incurable mental disease.[29]

​During the last decades there has not been much poetry of marked value produced in Sweden, but the little that has appeared shows a tendency to continue in the course indicated by Runeberg, and to seek a realistic basis. The political poetry which in the forties became so prominent in every European country, found a talented representative in Carl Vilhelm Strandberg (1818-77), who wrote under the name "Talis Qualis." He took the champions of political poetry in Germany, especially Herwegh and Hoffmann von Fallersleben as his models, and his first songs may be regarded as imitations of these. But he soon rose to complete independence, and his "Sånger i Pansar" are not only the best that Sweden has produced in this direction, but may be safely ranked with any recent productions of the same kind. He also wrote lyrical poems on other themes, and these are very attractive not only on account of the author's bold imagination, but also on account of the warm hearty sentiment pervading them. His translations of Byron's "Don Juan" and of his narrative poems are very good.[30]

Among modern poets we have yet to mention: The kings Charles XV and Oscar II. The former has written two volumes of poems, which chiefly treat of themes from northern antiquities. They indicate much talent and a refined taste. This also applies to the poems of the present king, among which the best are "Ur svenska flottans minnen," which he produced while a prince, and by which he won the prize offered by the Swedish Academy. His translations of Herder's Cid and Goethe's Tasso are very successful.[31] The renowned architect, Frederik Vilhelm Scholander (born 1816), has written, under the nom de plume "Acharius," a number of ​poems, among which are "Luisella," and "Noveller berättade på ottave rime," have become great favorites on account of their elegant form and charming contents. Karl Rupert Nyblom (born 1832) has published a number of merry songs, and under the pseudonym "Carlino," a series of interesting "Bilder från Italien." Ernst Daniel Björck (1838-68) created by his "Naturbilder," which were crowned by the Academy, and by a few other poems, great and well founded expectations, the realization of which was cut off by his early death.[32]

Among the Swedish lyric poets still living count Karl Johan Gustaf Snoilsky is decidedly the first. He has not written much, but every thing proceeding from his pen is marked by a wealth of original thought and splendid style. He has rendered Goethe's ballads in Swedish in so masterly a manner that nothing has been lost of their original depth and grace.[33] Frans Hedberg (born 1828) is the author of a few very fine historical plays (Brölloppet på Ulfåsa, etc.), but his stories and lyric poems are not equally good.

During the present century Swedish literature has been enriched with a great number of excellent translations from foreign languages. We may add to those already mentioned the translation of Shakespeare by Karl August Hagberg (1810-64); of Tasso and Ariosto by Karl Anders Kullberg (born 1818); of Dante and Camoens by Nils Lovén (died 1858); of Milton by Emanuel Öman (born 1833), etc.

The national movement in Swedish literature in the beginning of this century could not fail to have a fruitful influence on the national historiography. Next after Geijer, Anders Magnus Strinnholm (1786-1862) is especially emi​nent. From early childhood he had lived in the most needy circumstances, and he had frequently suffered almost absolute want. Thus after studying a few years, he was compelled to leave the University in order to eke out an existence as a journeyman printer, and later he earned a precarious living by reading proofs, etc. Still he had the strength of character to devote himself to profound historical studies, and this he did with such signal success, that his first published work forthwith attracted great attention, and secured him assistance from the government and from the Academy, of which he afterward became a member. His best works are: "Svenska Folkets historia under Konungarne af Vasaätten," of which only three volumes appeared; "Svenska folkets historia från äldsta till närvarande tider;" and "Sveriges historia i sammandrag." Both these works are incomplete, the former closing with the year 1319, the latter with Gustav Vasa. Strinholm does not possess Geijer's genial method of discovering the finer threads of history; but while Geijer distinguishes himself by his grand summaries, and is able, with a few vigorous strokes, to shed the brightest light on persons and events, we find in Strinholm a careful comparison of all the facts bearing on the interpretation of a single phenomenon, and these are frequently arranged and grouped with a skill and art that remind us of the epic poet, and his language is remarkably clear, simple and dignified.

Anders Fryxell (1795-1881) has written the Swedish history for the people, and this he has done on a magnificent plan, his "Berättelser ur svenska historien," being a work of forty-four volumes. The narration is vivid and interesting, though not altogether reliable. Persons and events are frequently presented from a somewhat one-sided standpoint. Among the numerous works on various epochs in Swedish history we may mention: *Frederik Ferdinand Carlson's (born 1811) excellent "Sveriges historia under Konungarne af Pfalziska huset," which may be regarded as a continuation ​of Geijer's history; and Karl Gustav Malmström's (born 1822) "Sveriges politiska historia från Karl XII's död till 1772." K. T. Odhner has also written some very meritorious works. Archbishop Henrik Reuterdahl has produced an interesting history of the Swedish church down to 1533, and the history of Swedish literature has been treated in a worthy manner by S. Wiselgren, Fryxell, Atterbom, Malmström, G. H. J. Ljunggren, and others. Samuel Ödmann ("Hagkomster från hembygden och skolan"), Lovén ("Folklifvet i Skytts härad), Hyltén-Cavallius ("Värend och Virdarne") have contributed valuable works to the knowledge of life and customs among the lower classes of the people. Antiquarian research has found able scholars in Dybeck, Holmberg, Bror Emil Hildebrand, Oscar Montelius, and others.

Philosophical studies have long been pursued with great zeal in Sweden. At the close of the last century Benjamin Karl Henrik Höijer (1767-1812) sought to introduce into Sweden the Kant-Fichte principles, and his critical and philosophical works contributed much to hasten the crisis out of which the modern literary epoch emerged. He particularly exercised a strong influence on Geijer, in whose writings the philosophical element is very prominent.

Kristopher Jakob Boström (1797-1866) is, however, the only Swede who has created an independent philosophical system. Among his pupils Christian Theodor Claëson (1827-59) and Johan Axel Nybälus (born 1821) are the most eminent. The latter belongs, like the above-mentioned Viktor Rydberg, to the so-called new rational tendency, which, in recent times, has found many adherents in Sweden. Among the representatives of the other branches of science we must confine ourselves to simply mentioning the most eminent names. The following are known throughout the world: The chemist, Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779-1848); the botanist, Elias Fries (1794-1878); the botanist and statistician, Karl Adolph Agardh (1785-1859); the geologist and ​antiquarian, Sven Nilsson (born 1787); and the anatomist, Anders Adolph Retzius (1796-1864).[34]

Sweden may look with pride on her achievements in the world of science and literature.


  1. ↑ F. M. Franzéns Skaldestycken I-VII, Örebro, 1824-61.
  2. ↑ J. O. Wallins samlade Vitterhetsarbeten I-II, Stockholm, 1878.
  3. ↑ P. D. A. Atterboms samlade Digter, I-VI, Örebro, 1854-63. Samlade Skrifter i obunden Stil, I-IV, Örebro, 1859-64.
  4. ↑ K. F. Dahlgrens samlade arbeten, edited by A. J. Arvidsson, I-V, Stockholm, 1847-52. J. Börjessons valda Skrifter, edited by L. Dietrichson, I-II, Stockholm, 1874. A. Grafströms Skaldeförsök, Stockholm, 1832. S. J. Hedborn: Minne och Poesi, Linköping, 1835.
  5. ↑ E. J. Stagnelius samlade Skrifter, edited by C. Eichhorn, I-II, Stockholm, 1867-68.
  6. ↑ Vitalis samlade Skrifter, Stockholm, 1873.
  7. ↑ In the Swedish universities a docent's chief duty is to coach students for their examinations. They are not expected to lecture.
  8. ↑ R. Hjärne: Götiska forbundet och dess hufudmän I, Stockholm, 1878. E. G. Geijers samlade skrifter I-VIII. Stockholm, 1873-75. Supplement, Stockholm, 1876.
  9. ↑ P. H. Lings samlade skrifter, Stockholm, 1866.
  10. ↑ Translated into English by H. W. Longfellow.
  11. ↑ There are twenty-one translations of Tegnér's Frithjofs saga into English and nineteen into German.
  12. ↑ E. Tegnérs samlade Skrifter, I-II, Stockholm, 1876. Efterlemnade Skrifter, I-III, Stockholm, 1873-74.
  13. ↑ B. v. Beskow's dramatiska Studier, I-II, Stockholm, 1836-38. Minnesbilder, I-II, Stockholm, 1860-66. Om Gustav III såsom konning och menniska, Stockholm, 1860.
  14. ↑ K. A. Nicanders samlade Digter, I-II, Stockholm, 1877.
  15. ↑ C. E. Fahlcrantz samlade Skrifter, I-VII, Örebro, 1863-86.
  16. ↑ K. J. L. Almquists valda Skrifter, edited by A. M. Lysander, I-IV, Stockholm, 1874-75. Srödda Skrifter, Stockholm, 1878. Amalia Hillner, I-H, Stockholm, 1840. Gabriele Mimanso, I-III, Stockholm, 1841-42. Tre fruar i Småland, I-III, Jönköping, 1842-43. A. Th. Lysander: K. J. L. Almquist, Karaktärs- och lefnadstecking, Stockholm, 1878. A. Ahnfelt: K. L. Almquist, hans lif och verksamhet, Stockholm, 1866.
  17. ↑ F. Cederborgh: Valda skrifter, edited by C. F. A. Holmström, Stockholm, 1856. F. R. Bremers samlade skrifter i Urval, I-VI, Örebro, 1869-72.
  18. ↑ S. M. v. Knorrings Kusinerna, I-III. Stockholm, 1835. Axel, I-III, Stockholm, 1836. Ståndsporalleler, I-III, Stockholm, 1838. Torparen och haus Omgifning, I-II, Stockholm, 1843. Skizzer, 1 Saml, Stockholm, 1841. 2 Saml. Götheborg, 1846.
  19. ↑ E. Flygare-Carlens samlade romaner, I-XXXI, Stockholm, 1869-75.
  20. ↑ K. A. Wetterbergs samlade skrifter, I-X, Örebro, 1869-74.
  21. ↑ A. Blanches samlade arbeten, 1-3 series, 15 vols., Stockholm, 1870-74.
  22. ↑ G. W. Gumälius: Tord Bonde I, Upsala, 1828. P. Sparre: Historiska romaner, I-X, Stockholm, 1869-72. H. Mellin: Svenska historiska noveller, I-III, Stockholm, 1874-75. R. v. Zeipel: Seton, I-IV, Stockholm, 1847. De sammansvurna, I-III, Stockholm, 1849. K. A. Kullberg: Gustaf III och hans hof, I-II, Stockholm, 1838-39. M. J. Crusenstolpe: Morianen, I-VI, Stockholm, 1840-44. Karl Johan och Svenskarne, I-IV, Stockholm, 1845-46. K. F. Ridderstads samlade Skrifter, Linköping, 1876. Z. Topelius: Faltskärens berättelser, I-VI, Stockholm, 1872-74.
  23. ↑ V. Rydberg: Den siste Atenaren, I-II, Stockholm, 1876. Fribytaren på Östersjön, Gefle, 1877. Singoalla, Götheborg, 1876. Romerska Dagar, Stockholm, 1877.
  24. ↑ B. E. Malmströms samlade Skrifter, I-VIII, Örebro, 1866-69. C. W. Böttigers samlade Skrifter, I-V, Stockholm, 1856-58.
  25. ↑ J. Jolins Skrifter, I-IV, Stockholm, 1872-77. J. A. Wadmans samlade Skrifter, Stockholm, 1869.
  26. ↑ W. v. Brauns samlede Skrifter, I-VI, Stockholm, 1875-76. O. P. Sturzenbeckers (Orvar Odd) valda Skrifter, Stockholm, 1878.
  27. ↑ E. Sehlstedts samlade Sånger och visor, I-IV, Stockholm, 1873-78. G. Wennerberg: Gluntarne, Stockholm, 1878.
  28. ↑ Kalevala svensk Öfversättning af E. Collan, I-II, Helsingfors, 1864-68. Finska Toner, Öfversättning af R. Hertzberg, I, Stockholm, 1873. II, Helsingfors, 1874
  29. ↑ J. L. Runebergs samlade skrifter, I-II, Stockholm, 1876. Efterlemlade skrifter, I-III, Stockholm, 1878-9. Cygnäus: Om Runebergs Fänrik Ståls sägner, Helsingfors, 1861. Nervanders digter, I-II, Helsingfors, 1869-75. Cygnäus: Skaldestycken, I-V, Helsingfors, 1851-54. Senare samling, I, Helsingfors, 1870. Z. Topelius: Sånger, I-III, Stockholm, 1870-72. Dramatiske dikter, I, Stockholm, 1861. Läsning for barn, I-IV, Stockholm, 1878. J. Vecksells samlade dikter, Helsingfors, 1868. Daniel Hjort, Örebro, 1874.
  30. ↑ C. W. A. Strandbergs samlade vitterhets arbeten, I-II, Stockholm, 1877-78.
  31. ↑ Karl XV: En samling dikter af C. Stockholm, 1870. Oscar Frederik (Oscar II) samlade Skrifter, I-II, Stockholm, 1875-76.
  32. ↑ F. W. Scholander: Fjolners Saga, Götheborg, 1867. Luisella, Stockholm, 1867. Noveller berättade på ottave rime," Stockholm, 1868. K. R.Nyblom: Bilder från Italien, Upsala, 1864. Vers och prosa, Upsala, 1870. Valda dikter, Upsala, 1876. E. D. Björck: Valda dikter, Stockholm, 1869.
  33. ↑ R. J. G. Snoilsky: Dikter, Stockholm, 1878
  34. ↑ A. M. Strinnholm: Svenska folkets historia under konungarne af Wasaätten, I-III, Stockholm, 1819-23. Svenska folkets historia från äldsta till närvarande tider, I-V, Stockholm, 1835-54. Sveriges historia i sammandrag, I-II, Stockholm, 1857-60. A. Fryxell: Berättelser ur svenska historien, Stockholm, 1832, sqq.. F. F. Carlson: Sveriges historia under konungarne af Pfalziska huset, I-V, Stockholm, 1855-79. K. G. Malmström: Sveriges politiska historia från Karl XII död till 1772, I-VI, Stockholm, 1855-78. K. T. Odhner: Sveriges, Norges och Danmarks historia, Stockholm, 1876. H. Reuterdahl: Svenska Kyrkans historia, I-IV, Lund, 1838-65. B. K. H. Höijer: Afhandling om filosofiska konstruktionen, Stockholm, 1799. K. J. Boström: Ammärkingar om helveteslären, Upsala, 1864. Grundlinier till filosofiska statslären, Upsala, 1862. C. T. Claësen: Skrifter, I-II, Stockholm, 1860. J. A. Nybläus: Den filosofiska forskningen i Sverige, Lund, 1873. E. Fries: Botaniska udflukter, I-II, Stockholm, 1852-53. K. A. Agardh (and C. E. Ljungherg): Forsök till en statsekonomisk statistik öfver Sverige, I-IV, Stockholm, 1852-63. S. Nilsson: Skandinavisk Fauna, I-IV, Lund, 1820-52
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