The Palm-trees and their Cultivators.
The vegetation of the tropics impresses the stranger from a colder clime not only by the richness and luxuriance of its growth, and the intensity of its greenness, but also by the novelty of its forms. The light, graceful foliage of the margosa, the massive shade of the tamarind, the outstretching arms of the banyan with its series of supporting trunks, and the structure of many other noble trees, are new and beautiful. But it is upon the palms—well called the princes of the vegetable world—that he looks with most delight. Entirely unlike any of the forest or fruit-trees with which he has been at home familiar, they awaken trains of thought and feeling associated with the earliest dreams of oriental life and scenery. Well do they deserve, both from their beauty and utility, the position they hold as the most famous of the trees of the field.
Palm-trees, though of many varying species, have all some general characteristics. All palms have a trunk, growing often to a stately height, surmounted by a crown, not of branches, but of leaves; these leaves are either fan-like, or divided like the plume of the ostrich into leaflets springing from a strong leaf-stalk.
But, while thus possessing common traits, the different tribes present striking diversities. Some, like the rattan, climb to the summits of trees in the dense forests, and, serpent-like, growing from tree-top to tree-top, throw up their leafy heads above their topmost branches. Others are but a cluster of palm-leaves springing from a concealed trunk. In some, the shaft is most slender near the summit; in others, at a point midway from the root to the leaves; in others, again, its diameter will not vary perceptibly from the root to the leafy top.
A number of these different members of the palm-family are found in India, but among them two stand pre-eminent for frequency and utility; these are the palmyra and the cocoanut. To take these away would greatly diminish both the beauty and wealth of Southern India; for whole castes are entirely dependent upon them for their support. The cocoanut-palm is one of the most beautiful as well as one of the most useful of this beautiful and useful tribe of plants. Its shaft-like trunk towers forty, sixty, or eighty feet into the air; sometimes quite straight, at others bending and curved; and is surmounted by a rich crown of leaves, which wave in the air with all the grace of gigantic ostrich plumes. The leaves are each about fifteen feet in length, and to the number of twelve or fifteen spring from the summit of the trunk. They are pinnate, or divided into leaflets, attached to a strong midrib; the leaflets are highly polished and of a deep-green colour. The entire tree, when grouped in topes or scattered singly amid other objects, enriches every landscape in which it forms a part, and never ceases to charm the eye. Those who have dwelt amid cocoanut groves, when far away in colder climes long once more to look upon their graceful foliage, glittering in the bright sunlight or reflecting the rays of the moon in the soft night air of India.
As new leaves spring from the head of the ascending trunk, the oldest and consequently lowest are fading and dropping off. Each, as it falls, leaves a ridge upon the trunk, which assists the climber in reaching the fruit. The blossoms of the cocoanut spring from the trunk and open amid the bases of the lower leaves; as the tree sends forth a succession of blossoms every few weeks, the fruit is found upon it in every stage of maturity at the same time, from the blossom and the cluster of pretty little green nuts not larger than plums, to the full-grown fruit as large as a man's head, hanging from a tough stalk and ready to be plucked. Looking at the sandy and arid soil from which this noble pile of vegetable life springs, we wonder at its growth, but it is in such soil that it is most at home.
“The righteous," says the Psalmist, “shall flourish as the palm-tree;" his head shall be green, his trunk full of sap, his blossoms setting, and his fruit ripening, when all around is parched, arid, and waste. And why? Because, as the palm-tree sends down its roots twenty or even thirty feet beneath the sandy surface, drawing nourishment from the unseen waters flowing there; so the true spiritual Christian, while worldliness and deadness reign around, is drawing from unseen fountains that water of salvation which is within him, as a well of living water ever gushing forth unto everlasting life.
The cocoanut-tree is certainly one of the most remarkable of the many wonderful gifts of God to man. Of the variety of uses to which it may be applied there is almost no end; nor is there any portion of it which has not its peculiar use. The trunk, the leaves, the fruit, all contribute to the comfort and support of the Hindu. From its trunk he builds his hut, makes gutters for water, and cuts posts and canoes. From its leaves he makes mats for his floor, thatch for his roof, and screens for the front of his house; closely-platted, it gives him fish-bags, baskets, and even buckets for water. The stiff, strong stalk of the leaf answers for an oar for the fishermen, for the construction of fences, and for fuel; while the husk which surrounds the nut, when soaked and beaten into separate fibres, furnishes thread and twine from which to make his nets and ropes, as well as a swinging hammock for his babe, and a mattrass for himself. The fruit, when young and green, furnishes a refreshing drink from the water within it, and the kernel is then so soft that it may be eaten with a spoon; when ripe, it becomes a most valuable article of traffic, as it contains a large amount of oil which is expressed in mills and sold for use in cookery, for lamp-oil, for anointing the head and body, and for many other purposes. The kernel is also used in the formation of sweetmeats and of the universally-eaten curry. The hard shell of the nut, when cut and polished, answers for ladle, cup, or spoon; and, when not thus used, for fuel, as it contains a good proportion of oil. The sap gives toddy and arrack, (intoxicating drinks,) or, if boiled down before fermenting, sugar.
Many as are the uses of this invaluable tree already enumerated, they are not all. Indeed, to take away from Southern India and Ceylon its cocoanut-trees, would inflict upon multitudes a most severe calamity; hence, their owners guard them most carefully, and on no account destroy them until they grow old and of little value except for timber. They are rented out at so much a tree, and sometimes a single tree will be the property of two or more persons. Commonly, the cocoanut-palm is planted in topes or groves, covering a large surface of ground, and arranged in parallel lines, so as to form lanes completely shaded by their uniting leaves.
The fruit is sent to the large towns for sale; but in many parts of India these cocoanut topes are devoted to the production of intoxicating drinks; and the gift of God, for the comfort and enrichment of man, is made the means of his degradation and ruin. The license system of the English rulers of India fosters the traffic; and, while it brings a present revenue to government, is impoverishing the people from whom revenue is to be obtained. The privilege of selling the toddy and arrack in each district is sold to the highest bidder, who must then sell enough of these liquors to make it profitable to himself. By this system, the consumption of intoxicating drinks has been raised in many places from almost nothing to tens of thousands of gallons yearly; and, where a few years since the contract would not bring a hundred rupees, it now sells for thousands. The unavoidable consequence of this system is the increase of intemperance, crime, and poverty. Government, following the example of the woman in the old fable, is killing the goose to get the golden egg.
Toddy is the sap of the palm-tree; in Ceylon of the cocoanut-palm, and on the continent principally of the palmyra. It is obtained by cutting off the end of the spathe, or stalk of flowering blossoms, and suspending from it an earthen pot to collect the liquid which distils, drop by drop, from the cut surface. When first obtained, it is sweet, and, if boiled down, yields a large quantity of sugar; if permitted to stand, it soon ferments and becomes intoxicating. From gardens near the towns and cities it is brought in this state to be sold in the liquor shops; but in places more remote from markets it is distilled, and yields a much stronger and more alcoholic liquor called arrack. This is a means of ruin not only to the natives, but also to European soldiers in India; thus there is inflicted upon the government a loss for which the revenue received by this traffic is very far from compensating. It is to be hoped that this will be seen, and a stop put to this great and sore evil, which threatens fearful mischief to a hitherto temperate people. According to Hindu rules, no man of good caste may touch intoxicating liquors; but the habit of drinking both home-made and imported spirits is rapidly increasing among natives even of high castes.
The palmyra-palm grows along the whole Indian coast, but abounds most in the southeastern part of the peninsula. From Madura to Cape Comorin on the south, and from the seaboard many miles inland, the sandy soil produces little beyond groves of this tree; a caste called Shanars, numbering some hundreds of thousands, subsist almost entirely upon its products. An interest attaches to them and their mode of life from the fact that by far the most successful efforts of missionaries in Southern India have been those made for their benefit.
The palmyra lacks the grace of the cocoanut; its branchless trunk rises stifly to a height of thirty or forty feet, and terminates in a cluster of fan-shaped leaves, each four feet in diameter, and spreading from a stout leaf-stalk into a circular leaf, ending in pointed rays like the fingers of the hand. From these leaves palm-leaf fans are made by trimming and binding the edges of the leaf, the stalk serving as a handle. These fans are sometimes of a very large size, and are waved by an attendant who stands at a little distance from his master, grasping the handle with both hands. In journeying through Southern India, you will fre
Young Palmyra. p. 316.
quently notice a banyan-tree, from the centre of whose trunk the foliage of the palmyra rises in a leafy crown. This rather singular phenomenon is caused by seeds of the banyan dropped by birds or otherwise upon the moist summit of the palmyra, there germinating and sending down their roots; these roots, reaching the ground, fix themselves in the earth and grow until they almost or altogether envelop the trunk of the palmyra, leaving only its head exposed above the banyan.
The chief value of the tree is its sap, which, like that of the cocoanut-tree, is obtained by cutting the sheaths which contain the flowerbuds. To do this would be no easy task to one who, for the first time, was led to the foot of a naked trunk rising forty or more feet from the ground without a single branch, and too large to be encircled by the arms; but to the Shanar, accustomed to climb them from his boyhood, it is a trifle. Indeed, this is the employment of his life. At four o'clock in the morning he sets out for his day's work with a girdle attached to his waist, from which is suspended one or more earthen pots for the sap, and a sheath containing a large knife. A piece of cloth around his middle is his whole clothing. Tying a small piece of rope around his ancles to keep his feet from slipping apart, and passing a band around his own body and the trunk of the tree, he places his feet against the trunk, and leaning back upon the band, commences his ascent. He reaches the top with an ease and rapidity given by long practice, and resting himself upon the band around his waist, with his feet braced against the tree, has his hands free to cut the flower-bud, and hang from it his earthen pot; or, when this has previously been done, to empty the sap which has accumulated into the vessel which he carries at his girdle. The climber ascends tree after tree, and empties the fluid into larger vessels on the ground; these his wife sets over a fire which she kindles among the trees. It is boiled down until it is thickened into a syrup, which is poured out and cools into lumps of coarse black sugar, called in Tamil karupu-katty or black-lump. The life of both husband and wife is very laborious, and the danger of falling adds to the hardship of the Shanar's calling. But, though from time to time an accident occurs, and the poor toddydrawer is found lying mangled or with broken limbs at the foot of his trees, practice makes them as much at home among the leaves and 
Cocoanut trees, and Toddy gatherers of Southern India. p. 318,
flower-buds of the tall palm as others are upon the solid earth. The sugar, fruit, and roots of the palmyra form a great part of the Shanar's food, and the sale of his surplus crop enables him to procure some few of the comforts of life; but as a class they are very poor. This very poverty, however, has probably made them more willing to receive the riches of everlasting life.
The religion of the Shanars is devil-worship: not in the sense in which all idolaters are said to worship devils and to follow the doctrine of devils; but the objects of their worship are actually evil spirits—devils. Their sacrifices, prayers, and devotions are directed to the attainment of a deliverance from the wrath and persecutions of these Peys and Pisasus, or devils; their temples are called Pey-covils, or devil-temples, and their worship, Pey-arathaney, or devil-worship. These devils are very numerous, and their number receives constant accessions from the ranks of the spirits of dying men. The grave of an English officer has become a holy place with some of these deluded devil-worshippers, and the offerings made to his departed spirit show their idea of what will most appease his ghost—they are brandy and segars!
As a specimen of their views as to the character and agency of demons, we would mention the story told of a female devil called Mootoo-Ammen. Having, as they say, been cast out of her place, and condemned to wander for thousands of years on the earth, she entreated that some favour might be granted to her which would lighten the wretchedness of her banishment. Her superior answered that the only boon he had to bestow was the power of injuring men, of destroying children, and cursing the earth with barrenness. This gift was quite satisfactory, and she went forth to exercise her vocations, and to be worshipped and propitiated with sacrifices by the people.
The effects of such a belief can readily be imagined. Fear, not love, is the moving cause of worship, and no holy influence is exerted upon the heart. Sin is not rebuked, crime is not checked, the mind is not elevated; on the contrary, the soul is belittled, debased, and degraded, even by the act of worship.
They offer sacrifices of fowls, sheep, and goats to the demons whose favour they desire, and whose vengeance they fear; and to English and Pariah devils they give libations of spirituous liquors. They believe firmly in possessions by evil spirits, and some among them profess to be able by incantations to cast out devils from the possessed. While under the influence of the devil, (as they affirm,) the possessed person raves, dances in a furious manner, foams at the mouth, distorts his countenance, and falls into convulsions. What they say at such times is held to be said by the spirit, and is received as an oracle by the lookers-on. The English and American missionaries, though they think that the devil may have a special power over persons who thus give themselves into his hand and invoke his coming, do not look upon such cases as actual possessions, in the scriptural sense. Some of the German brethren, however, deem them actual possessions.
Although the Shanars have received into their belief some of the opinions of the Brahmins, and have much in common with the more northern nations of India, they are undoubtedly of a different race from the mass of the Hindus. They are probably the first inhabitants of this part of India; and, though subject to the authority of the more modern Hindus, they retain, to a great degree, their ancient manners and religion.
A race inhabiting the same part of India, and known as Maravers, are also distinct from other classes of Hindus. They are, by profession, thieves. They are found very useful, however, as watchmen. If you reside in Tinnevelly, you can insure your property against theft by the employment of one of them in this capacity. Going to a head man among them, you engage one of his men to live upon your premises as a guard, for two rupees (one dollar) a month. The head man now becomes responsible for your property, and if anything is stolen, he is bound to make it good. Being thus under his guardianship, none of his men molest you; and should others of a different clan steal from you, he would probably make reprisals, and obtain satisfaction by sending his followers to commit a theft on some premises under their care.
The venerable Schwartz, amid his labours at Tanjore and Trichinopoly, turned southward to preach the gospel in Tinnevelly. His labours were attended with success; but they were not followed up, and for want of nurture the seed sown, though it sprang up most promisingly, yielded but little fruit. In the year 1820, Mr. Rhenius, a Prussian in the employ of the English Church Missionary Society, one of the most able, devoted, and successful missionaries of modern times, removed from Madras to Tinnevelly, and commenced vigorous efforts for the spread of the truth among its eight hundred thousand inhabitants. His labours were remarkably blessed. Village after village renounced heathenism to put itself under the superintendence and instruction of the mission. In 1852, there were, under the care of two missionary societies, in this district alone, more than thirty-five thousand native Christians. Although this work has embraced all castes, it has been most widely extended among the Shanars. Many a pey-covil (devil-temple) has been torn down to make way for the schoolhouse; and walls and images have been used in the construction of Christian churches. A single missionary will have under his care two, three, four, or even five thousand persons, who, though not all converted, nor all admitted to the Lord's supper, have cast away their idols, received the Bible as their guide, and become, in name and outward life, Christians. As these communities are scattered in fifty or sixty villages, one missionary cannot suffice for the instruction of all. Catechists, or native preachers and teachers, are therefore appointed, one or two to each village. These catechists assemble at the mission-station once a month to report each as to the portion of the field under their charge, and to receive instructions for the coming month. Several days are spent in religious exercises, and the catechists then return to their charges. At other times the missionary is engaged in preaching and labouring at the central station, which is intended to be a model for the out-stations, in preaching to the heathen, and in visiting the various villages under his care. Schools for the education of children, both boys and girls, and higher seminaries for the training of native preachers and teachers, afford full employment for all the men upon the ground. The success which has attended their labours has compelled them to become, to a great degree, bishops or overseers of their flocks, and leaves them but little ability to preach extensively among the heathen beyond their parishes, without neglecting their charges. Devoted men are now being sent forth, whose duty it will be to go beyond the labours of these brethren, and to itinerate among the villages and towns. It should be remarked, however, that the heathen villages and Christian villages are so intermingled, and single villages so divided, that both the stationary missionaries and the native preachers have many opportunities which they improve for making known to them the way of salvation. And, moreover, without any direct effort on their part, native Christians, and even little children from the schools, scatter the seed in neighbouring communities, and thus lead others to unite with the Christian body. A similar and deeply interesting work is going forward in the adjoining districts of Travancore and Madura, under the labours of English and American missionaries.
It will be seen at a glance, that as those who apply for instruction in Christianity are usually heathen men, their motives must be often of a mixed character. They hear the truth, and feel its great superiority to their own debasing idolatry; or they perceive that Christian communities near them are increasing in worldly comforts and education; or they conclude that the new religion is to prevail; and thus, from a variety of reasons, are led to apply for a teacher, and to engage to renounce idolatry and heathenism. A movement commencing with a few individuals will sometimes in the end embrace a large number, who unite with their friends in choosing the new religion, rather than have two parties in the village community.
In a village inhabited by Shanars, but belonging to a Brahmin, part of the people had resolved to become Christians. When this came to the ears of the proprietor, he went to the place, and, convening a town-meeting, addressed them to this effect: “I hear that some of you have determined to learn the new Veda, (Scriptures;) now, I do not wish to have any divisions or quarrels in my village, nor shall there be two parties here. Therefore, all of you either remain in a body in your old religion, or else all join the new. If you like to embrace Christianity, do so; I shall not oppose you; and, if you like, you may turn your temple into a prayer-house. Only all be of the same mind; and if you do not act justly towards me, I shall look to the missionaries to see me righted." The Brahmin cared little what religion they embraced, if he only got his dues, and well knew that as Christians they would be quite as good tenants as if heathen. The result was, that all of the two hundred inhabitants of the village placed themselves under Christian instruction, destroyed their idols, (valued at two hundred rupees,) and devoted their pey-covil (devil-temple) to the worship of the true God.
In another village, inhabited by persons of the robber-caste, the inhabitants asked for a Christian teacher. The missionary visited them, and addressed them from the text, "Contend earnestly for the faith.” After he was gone, they sat down to talk over this matter. As their minds were still befogged with the mists of heathenism, they had some discussion as to what the padré meant. The subject, however, was made clear by one of their number: “We must fight for the new doctrine," said the wise Hindu; “that is, we must compel men to accept it. There is a village over there—they are all heathen; we must go to them, and see to it that they become Christians." This interpretation seemed so reasonable, that they armed themselves with sticks, and moved in a body upon the village. Having arrived, they made known their business. The villagers refused to be converted so suddenly. The contenders for the faith, however, were in earnest; they sat down before the town and blockaded it, allowing no one to go out to the wells for water. On the third day the villagers submitted, accepted the terms of the besiegers, and gave in their adhesion to the new religion. Strange to say, they have embraced Christianity in good faith, and are to this day steadfast in the new way, and a permanently Christian village.
The Christians of Tinnevelly have at times been persecuted by the zemindars, or landowners, and by their heathen neighbours; but their general prosperity attracts the notice of the latter, and their good conduct in general satisfies the former. They have, in a most interesting manner, and of their own accord, established among themselves a number of benevolent societies. One, called the “Pilgrim Society," is for the purpose of sending men to preach among the heathen villages. Another, called the “Church-Building Fund," was commenced at the suggestion of a catechist who had belonged to the robber-caste, on the plan of each member of the society giving the proceeds of his best day's labour in the year, with as much more as he pleases, for building places of worship. The first church built by this society was opened for public worship in the year 1842, and is a pleasing evidence of the power of the gospel in a district lately so dark, so poor, and so debased. They have also tract and book societies, widows' funds, and a society for purchasing land upon which to establish Christian villages.
It is an interesting fact, and one which justifies the union of the palm-tree and Christianity in Southern India in one chapter, that Christianity is actually following the line of the palmyra groves northward from Tinnevelly into Madura. Owing to the peculiar nature of caste influences, the conversion of the Shanars of the sandy plains near Cape Comorin has an effect upon those who live beyond them to the north; and Christianity seems to be spreading a bright line from Tinnevelly along the seaboard to the north.
Did the limits of this little work admit of it, our readers might be told of many interesting circumstances connected with individual converts and particular movements. But the few hints given suffice to show the nature and the greatness of the work which God is doing by his servants among the groves and fields of Tinnevelly. To those who ask whether the preaching of the gospel in India has not been a failure; and to those inclined to answer this question on the testimony of sailors who spend a few days in a tavern at Madras or Calcutta and say that they saw no Christians in India; or of travellers who pass a day in a rest-house, and describe all the wonders of cities which it would take weeks to explore,—we think the facts stated should give a satisfactory reply. There are, beyond any question, in India, thousands who give every evidence of a change of heart; and of these thousands there are many who make sacrifices for the name of Christ of which American Christians never dream. Nowhere can we find more striking proofs of the power of the gospel to overthrow the most degrading superstition, to soften the most obdurate heart, to render benevolent the most selfish disposition, and to save the most polluted soul. And nowhere can we find greater encouragement to send the preacher of the truth to every land, and to look upon no soil as too barren, no rock too hard, to yield the blossoms of righteousness, and to hold no nation to be too debased to be elevated, refined, and sanctified by the power of the Spirit of God.